The DOI matches its Crossref record; 154 of the 154 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Flamingo: A Visual Language Model for Few-Shot Learning
Abstract
Building models that can be rapidly adapted to novel tasks using only a handful of annotated examples is an open challenge for multimodal machine learning research. We introduce Flamingo, a family of Visual Language Models (VLM) with this ability. We propose key architectural innovations to: (i) bridge powerful pretrained vision-only and language-only models, (ii) handle sequences of arbitrarily interleaved visual and textual data, and (iii) seamlessly ingest images or videos as inputs. Thanks to their flexibility, Flamingo models can be trained on large-scale multimodal web corpora containing arbitrarily interleaved text and images, which is key to endow them with in-context few-shot learning capabilities. We perform a thorough evaluation of our models, exploring and measuring their ability to rapidly adapt to a variety of image and video tasks. These include open-ended tasks such as visual question-answering, where the model is prompted with a question which it has to answer, captioning tasks, which evaluate the ability to describe a scene or an event, and close-ended tasks such as multiple-choice visual question-answering. For tasks lying anywhere on this spectrum, a single Flamingo model can achieve a new state of the art with few-shot learning, simply by prompting the model with task-specific examples. On numerous benchmarks, Flamingo outperforms models fine-tuned on thousands of times more task-specific data.
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In the citing paper
“vision-language models (VLMs) such as VilBERT 19 and Flamingo 2 combine a language model with an image encoder and are trained on a multi-modal corpus of text-image pairs.This enables them to predict how a given sequence of words will continue in the context of a given image.”
From Talking about Large Language Models (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“the latest generation of language models are multimodal, allowing interleaved image and text input (OpenAI, 2023a; Alayrac et al., 2022; Team et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023b)”
From Cognitive Architectures for Language Agents (2023) · cites this paper as Alayrac et al., 2022
In the citing paper
“The Switch Transformer [201] was one of the first MoE-based Transformers, activating experts selectively in each layer, reducing computational overhead while outperforming dense Transformers in NLP tasks.”
From Multimodal fusion and vision–language models: A survey for robot vision (2026) · cites this paper as [201]
In the citing paper
“The dominant architectural paradigm connects specialized, external multimodal encoders-such as CLIP for vision or CLAP for audio-to the LLM backbone via alignment modules like Q-Former or simple MLPs [19, 86, 615, 1139], a modular design that allows for independent encoder updates without retraining the entire model [624].”
From A Survey of Context Engineering for Large Language Models (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
Citations
Cites
Vaswani, A., Shazeer, N., Parmar, N., Uszkoreit, J., Jones, L., Gomez, A. N., Kaiser, L., & Polosukhin, I. (2017) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1706.03762 · Cited by 120,404 · cited 3×
“Language modelling has recently made substantial progress following the introduction of Transformers [115].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997) · Neural Computation · doi:10.1162/neco.1997.9.8.1735 · Cited by 102,318 · cited 2×
“To ensure that at initialization, the conditioned model yields the same results as the original language model, we use a tanh-gating mechanism [41].”
MethodBERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding
Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) · doi:10.18653/v1/n19-1423 · Cited by 54,325 · cited 4×
“In particular, BERT [23] inspired a large body of vision-language work [16, 28, 29, 38, 59, 61, 66, 101, 106, 107, 109, 118, 121, 142, 143, 151].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn Image is Worth 16x16 Words: Transformers for Image Recognition at Scale
Dosovitskiy, A., Beyer, L., Kolesnikov, A., Weissenborn, D., Zhai, X., Unterthiner, T., Dehghani, M., Minderer, M., Heigold, G., Gelly, S., et al. (2020) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2010.11929 · Cited by 47,472
ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge
Russakovsky, O., Deng, J., Su, H., Krause, J., Satheesh, S., Ma, S., Huang, Z., Karpathy, A., Khosla, A., Bernstein, M., et al. (2015) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-015-0816-y · Cited by 39,380 · cited 2×
“Im ag e ImageNet-1k [94] 3 Object classification Val Top-1 acc.”
BackgroundSwin Transformer: Hierarchical Vision Transformer using Shifted Windows
Liu, Z., Lin, Y., Cao, Y., Hu, H., Wei, Y., Zhang, Z., Lin, S., & Guo, B. (2021) · 2021 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv48922.2021.00986 · Cited by 35,534
Language Models are Few-Shot Learners
Brown, T. B., Mann, B., Ryder, N., Subbiah, M., Kaplan, J., Dhariwal, P., Neelakantan, A., Shyam, P., Sastry, G., Askell, A., et al. (2020) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2005.14165 · Cited by 23,372 · cited 12×
“We evaluate the ability of our models to rapidly adapt to new tasks using in-context learning , analogously to GPT-3 [11], by interleaving support example pairs in the form of ( 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) or ( 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑜, 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) , followed by the query visual input, to build a prompt (details in Method FT Shot OKVQA ( I )”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialEnd-to-End Object Detection with Transformers
Carion, N., Massa, F., Synnaeve, G., Usunier, N., Kirillov, A., & Zagoruyko, S. (2020) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-58452-8_13 · Cited by 18,285 · cited 2×
“[13] Nicolas Carion, Francisco Massa, Gabriel Synnaeve, Nicolas Usunier, Alexander Kirillov, and Sergey Zagoruyko.”
BackgroundMethodLearning Transferable Visual Models From Natural Language Supervision
Radford, A., Kim, J. W., Hallacy, C., Ramesh, A., Goh, G., Agarwal, S., Sastry, G., Askell, A., Mishkin, P., Clark, J., et al. (2021) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2103.00020 · Cited by 15,293 · cited 12×
“[85] we use “prompt-ensembling” in which we embed multiple texts using templates such as “A photo of a {class_name}” and average the resulting embedding.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialExploring the Limits of Transfer Learning with a Unified Text-to-Text Transformer
Raffel, C., Shazeer, N., Roberts, A., Lee, K., Narang, S., Matena, M., Zhou, Y., Li, W., & Liu, P. J. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1910.10683 · Cited by 10,929 · cited 3×
“To measure the importance of text pretraining, we compare the performance of using a frozen decoder-only Transformer either pretrained on MassiveText (our main model) or pretrained on the C4 dataset [87] (row (iv) of Table 10).”
BackgroundMethod
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Metadata
- Authors
- Alayrac, J.-B., Donahue, J., Luc, P., Miech, A., Barr, I., Hasson, Y., Lenc, K., Mensch, A., Millican, K., Reynolds, M., Ring, R., Rutherford, E., Cabi, S., Han, T., Gong, Z., Samangooei, S., Monteiro, M., Menick, J. L., Borgeaud, S., Brock, A., Nematzadeh, A., Sharifzadeh, S., Binkowski, M., Barreira, R., Vinyals, O., Zisserman, A., & Simonyan, K.
- Venue
- Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 35
- Published
- 2022
- Pages
- 23716-23736
- ISSN
- 1049-5258 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W7133196460
- Cited by
- 966
- References
- 154
- Citations by year
- 2026: 847 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 15.48
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- neural information processing systems (publishedVersion)
- Oxford University Research Archive (ORA) (University of Oxford) (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Domain Adaptation and Few-Shot Learning
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Multimodal Machine Learning Applications
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Neural Network Applications
- Keywords
- vision-language models, few-shot learning, image-text models
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