The DOI matches its Crossref record; 22 of the 23 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Comparative study of marker-based and markerless tracking in augmented reality under variable environmental conditions
Open accessAbstract
Augmented reality (AR) technology integrates virtual content into real environments using two main methods: marker-based and markerless tracking. Marker-based tracking relies on printed markers for object placement, while markerless uses environmental features for flexibility and accuracy. This research aims to evaluate the combined impact of environmental factors-distance, angle, and lighting-on these two methods. The Multimedia Development Life Cycle (MDLC) methodology was applied by testing 72 combinations of indicators: distance (5-120 cm), angle (30°, 45°, 90°), and light color (red, blue, green, yellow) using Xiaomi Note 8 and Google Pixel 4. Results show markerless tracking is superior in all conditions, achieving a 94.4% success rate on both devices. In contrast, marker-based tracking only achieved 72.2% (Xiaomi Note 8) and 77.8% (Google Pixel 4). Markerless tracking was optimally performed from 50 cm away and up close, while marker-based tracking degraded in performance at long distances and red lighting. Markerless tracking proved to be more reliable and consistent, suitable for dynamic and diverse environments, while marker-based methods remained relevant for short distances and controlled lighting. These findings provide guidance for AR developers in choosing a tracking methodology according to application needs.
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“Among these types, markerless AR offers superior flexibility and stability for dynamic environments [27].”
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Dwivedi, Y. K., Hughes, L., Baabdullah, A. M., Ribeiro-Navarrete, S., Giannakis, M., Al-Debei, M. M., Dennehy, D., Metri, B., Buhalis, D., Cheung, C. M. K., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2022.102542 · Cited by 2,753
Marker tracking and HMD calibration for a video-based augmented reality conferencing system
Kato, H., & Billinghurst, M. (2003) · doi:10.1109/iwar.1999.803809 · Cited by 2,214
What is XR? Towards a Framework for Augmented and Virtual Reality
Rauschnabel, P. A., Felix, R., Hinsch, C., Shahab, H., & Alt, F. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107289 · Cited by 1,104
A systematic review of augmented reality applications in maintenance
Palmarini, R., Erkoyuncu, J. A., Roy, R., & Torabmostaedi, H. (2017) · Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.rcim.2017.06.002 · Cited by 783
Analyzing augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) recent development in education
Al‐Ansi, A. M., Jaboob, M. S., Garad, A., & Al-Ansi, A. (2023) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100532 · Cited by 703
An overview of augmented reality technology
Chen, Y., Wang, Q., Chen, H., Song, X., Tang, H., & Tian, M. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1237/2/022082 · Cited by 312
Fitria, T. N. (2023) · International Journal of Computer and Information System (IJCIS) · doi:10.29040/ijcis.v4i1.102 · Cited by 129
Augmented Reality and its Applications in Education: A Systematic Survey
Zulfiqar, F., Raza, R., Khan, M. O., Arif, M., Alvi, A., & Alam, T. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3331218 · Cited by 51
From Marker to Markerless in Augmented Reality
Oufqir, Z., Abderrahmani, A. E., & Satori, K. (2020) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-0947-6_57 · Cited by 40
Augmented reality smart glasses use and acceptance: Α literature review
Koutromanos, G., & Kazakou, G. (2023) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2023.100028 · Cited by 40
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Marker-Based Augmented Reality: Creating Smart Business Cards with Unity and Vuforia
Garg, N., Kaur, A., & Dutta, R. (2025) · International Conference on Signal Processing, Computing and Control (ISPCC) · doi:10.1109/ispcc66872.2025.11039372 · Cited by 2
“While the marker-based tracking performed well at close distances but became poor at high angles and in the presence of red light and the success rates varied across devices [13].”
Zhou, Z., Zhou, Y., Ouyang, B., Man, S. S., & Chan, A. H. S. (2026) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare14131978
“Among these types, markerless AR offers superior flexibility and stability for dynamic environments [27].”
Visualisasi Organ Tubuh Dampak Merokok Menggunakan Augmented Reality
Purnamasari, F., Huzaifa, A. S., & Ayura, D. S. (2025) · JTIM Jurnal Teknologi Informasi dan Multimedia · doi:10.35746/jtim.v7i2.590
A Comparative Study of Marker-Based and Markerless Augmented Reality Technologies
Jonhy, Y. E., Hazzat, S. E., & Yakhlef, M. B. (2026) · International Conference on Innovative Research in Applied Science, Engineering and Technology (IRASET) · doi:10.1109/iraset68627.2026.11538820
“A recent cross-condition study underscores how environment and hardware configurations modulate the observed gaps between approaches [19], but the ecosystem still lacks a public, re-producible comparative framework that transfers readily to common use cases (AECO, education, maintenance).”
Gamification and Immersive Learning Technologies With AI Agents
Ahmed, S., Ahmad, A., Rehman, O. M. H., & Ahmad, F. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-7225-9.ch011
Metadata
- Authors
- Sulistiyono, M., Hasyim, J. W., Bernadhed, B., Liantoni, F., & Sidauruk, A.
- Affiliations
- Universitas Amikom Yogyakarta (ID)
- Sebelas Maret University (ID)
- Venue
- Journal of Soft Computing Exploration
- Publisher
- Surya Hijau Manfaat
- Published
- 2024-12-30
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 413-422
- ISSN
- 2746-0991 (ISSN-L)
- 2746-7686
- OpenAlex
- W4406083915
- Cited by
- 5
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2
- FWCI
- 0.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Soft Computing Exploration (publishedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Augmented Reality Applications
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Interactive and Immersive Displays
- Keywords
- augmented reality, marker tracking, markerless tracking, environmental factors, camera angles, lighting conditions, smartphone AR, device comparison
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