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Cited by 0Augmented Reality ApplicationsEducation and Technology IntegrationMultimedia Learning Systems

Students as Creators of Augmented Reality in Primary Education: A Pilot Study

Open access
Rellia, Maria, Koutromanos, George, Tsoli, Konstantina, Fokides, Emmanuel·2026·Practitioner Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network
DOI 10.56198/axbdwv11
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Abstract

The present pilot study investigates the use of Augmented Reality (AR) in Primary Education, focusing on students’ participation as active creators of digital educational content through the Zapworks platform. The study was conducted among students aged 10–12, attending a public experimental primary school in an urban area of Greece. In contrast to previous research approaches that primarily conceptualize students as users of ready-made AR applications, the present study adopts the Learning By Design Theory, placing learners as designers and creators of their own educational artifacts. The study aims to familiarize students with the Zapworks platform and to explore their perceptions regarding their overall experience, collaborative group work, personal engagement, learning motivation, and knowledge acquisition. The instructional intervention was based on a representative module from the 6th Grade Geography textbook (“The shape and movements of the Earth”). A qualitative exploratory research design was employed, with data collected through semi-structured interviews. The findings highlight the potential of AR as a learning medium that supports students’ active, creative, and reflective participation in the educational process. The study provides useful insights for pedagogical design and the integration of AR in Primary Education.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This pilot study explored primary students as creators of augmented reality content using Zapworks, grounded in Learning by Design Theory. Findings from interviews with 10 students aged 10–12 suggest positive emotional engagement, collaboration, and perceived learning benefits when creating AR artifacts for a 6th Grade Geography module.

Key findings

  • Students reported positive emotions and increased interest when their own AR creations “came to life” on screen, with quotations describing enjoyment, pride, and happiness.
  • Collaboration in small groups of 3–4 students supported problem-solving, role allocation, communication, and mutual support, especially when technical difficulties arose.
  • Students described difficulties such as needing time to get used to uploading elements and limited time for activities, but reported that group collaboration helped overcome them.
  • Students suggested future improvements including quizzes or assessment activities and using AR in other subjects such as Art and History.

Methods

  • Exploratory qualitative pilot within an authentic school setting, based on Learning by Design Theory; conducted in a multi-grade experimental primary school in Piraeus, Greece.
  • The broader project involved 110 students in Grades 4–6 aged 10–12, but this paper reports on a purposive sub-sample of 10 students (two boys and one girl from Grade 4; two girls and one boy from Grade 5; two boys and two girls from Grade 6).
  • The intervention had five phases over the first three weeks of December 2025, including familiarization with Zapworks, group creation of AR material for the 6th Grade Geography module “The shape and movements of the Earth,” testing via QR codes, and semi-structured interviews analyzed with a simple thematic approach.

Limitations

  • The paper states it is a small-scale pilot with a limited sample, offering exploratory rather than generalizable findings, potentially influenced by the novelty of the technology.
  • The paper states the design cannot fully isolate AR effects from collaborative creation, and calls for future research with larger samples and longer interventions.
  • Evident from the text: data come only from semi-structured interviews with 10 students in one school, with no quantitative learning outcome measure or comparison condition reported.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.56198/axbdwv11

Cites

0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 18 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The opportunity to create their own digital content elicited strong feelings of joy, pride, and enthusiasm among the students.

    “The opportunity to create their own digital content elicited strong feelings of joy, pride, and enthusiasm among the students”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Through the interviews, meaningful student suggestions emerged regarding the improvement and future use of the AR-based activity, including incorporating quizzes or assessment activities.

    “Through the interviews, meaningful student suggestions emerged regarding the improvement and future use of the AR-based activity.Of particular interest was the proposal to incorporate quizzes or assessment activities”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Students' positive emotional engagement was particularly evident when they observed their own creations 'come to life' on the screen of the wearable device.

    “Students' positive emotional engagement was particularly evident when they observed their own creations “come to life” on the screen of the wearable device”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Collaboration was based on mutual respect and active listening to the views of all group members.

    “In addition, collaboration was based on mutual respect and active listening to the views of all group members”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Co-working in small groups of 3-4 students proved to be crucial for the development of collaboration and effective communication.

    “Co-working in small groups of 3-4 students proved to be crucial for the development of collaboration and effective communication.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 23
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 10

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    These difficulties were resolved through group collaboration, with good role distribution and collaboration helping to overcome them.

    “However, as some students pointed out, these difficulties were resolved through group collaboration: “…good role distribution and collaboration helped to overcome these difficulties.”(Student 6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In cases where difficulties arose, students supported one another, describing collaboration as particularly important for problem-solving.

    “In cases where difficulties arose (e.g., inserting an image), students supported one another, describing collaboration as particularly important for problem-solving”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Role allocation contributed to effective collaboration and the smooth progression of the process.

    “Role allocation contributed to effective collaboration and the smooth progression of the process”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Students encountered several difficulties during the development of their own augmented content, including needing time to get used to uploading elements to the platform and limited time for completing activities.

    “The results of the data analysis also revealed several difficulties encountered by students during the development of their own augmented content: “…I needed some time to get used to uploading the elements to the platform.”(Student 3); “…the time was limited for completing the activities.”(Student 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Students expressed a desire for AR to be utilized in other subject areas, such as Art and History.

    “Finally, students expressed a desire for AR to be utilized in other subject areas: “… Art, because I could create my own color shades and also create my own shapes.”(Student 3); “…I would like it to be in History.To see, you know, wars come to life….”(Student 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The use of AR significantly enhanced students' positive emotional disposition, increasing their interest in the learning subject.

    “The analysis of the interview data indicated that the use of AR significantly enhanced students' positive emotional disposition, increasing their interest in the learning subject”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Collaboration acted as both a social and cognitive support, enabling students to co-construct understanding and address challenges, consistent with collaborative and Learning by Design principles.

    “Collaboration acted as both a social and cognitive support, enabling students to co-construct understanding and address challenges, consistent with collaborative and Learning by Design principles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed.

    “Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Active engagement in creative digital processes seems to enhance skills such as empathy, autonomy, and self-confidence.

    “Finally, active engagement in creative digital processes seems to enhance skills such as empathy, autonomy, and self-confidence, since students assume responsibility for their choices and work within collaborative learning environments [7].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Students' suggestions indicate reflective engagement and emerging metacognitive awareness, supporting the potential for broader curricular use of AR.

    “Students' suggestions indicate reflective engagement and emerging metacognitive awareness, supporting the potential for broader curricular use of AR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Patterns across participants were identified and supported with illustrative quotations.

    “Patterns across participants were identified and supported with illustrative quotations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Although some challenges were reported, primarily of a technical nature and time and space management issues, these difficulties were considered manageable.

    “Although some challenges were reported by students, primarily of a technical nature (loading delays, augmenting difficulties) as well as time and space management issues, these difficulties were considered manageable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Data were analyzed using a simple thematic approach, grouping recurring ideas into thematic categories aligned with the study focus: experience, collaboration, learning, difficulties, and reflection.

    “Data were analyzed using a simple thematic approach, grouping recurring ideas into thematic categories aligned with the study focus: experience, collaboration, learning, difficulties, and reflection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Students appeared to develop social skills, while collaboration functioned as a mechanism to overcome technical and organizational challenges encountered during the activity.

    “Students appeared to develop social skills, while collaboration functioned as a mechanism to overcome technical and organizational challenges encountered during the activity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The use of digital augmented elements (images, videos, and 3D objects) seemed to support the understanding of abstract and complex Geography concepts, particularly regarding the movements of the Earth, thereby reinforcing experiential learning.

    “According to student responses, the use of digital augmented elements (images, videos, and 3D objects) seemed to support the understanding of abstract and complex Geography concepts, particularly regarding the movements of the Earth, thereby reinforcing experiential learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The selected Geography module (The shape and movements of the Earth) is abstract and spatial in nature, and therefore benefits from visualization and interactive representation.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Learning by Design Theory views students' active creation of digital content as a learning process that supports conceptual understanding, knowledge processing, and application in authentic contexts.

    “It was grounded in Learning by Design Theory, which views students' active creation of digital content as a learning process that supports conceptual understanding, knowledge processing, and application in authentic contexts [21][22].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [21]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [22]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participation in the study was voluntary and conducted with parental consent, in accordance with all required ethical standards.

    “Participation was voluntary and conducted with parental consent, in accordance with all required ethical standards.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most AR research focuses on secondary and higher education, while studies targeting primary education remain limited.

    “Moreover, most AR research focuses on secondary and, to an even greater extent, higher education [16], while studies targeting primary education remain limited [17][18][19].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [16]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [17]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [18]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [19]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study adopted an exploratory qualitative design, implemented as a small-scale pilot within an authentic school setting.

    “This study adopted an exploratory qualitative design, implemented as a small-scale pilot within an authentic school setting.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Creating their own digital content enhanced creativity, self-confidence, and active engagement in the learning process.

    “The opportunity to create their own digital content elicited strong feelings of joy, pride, and enthusiasm among the students, enhancing creativity, self-confidence, and active engagement in the learning process”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    AR acted as a motivating learning medium, 'bringing the book to life' and reinforcing involvement and ownership of learning in line with constructivist perspectives.

    “Students' responses suggest that AR acted as a motivating learning medium, “bringing the book to life” and reinforcing involvement and ownership of learning in line with constructivist perspectives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Activities engaging students in the design and construction of digital artifacts enhance learning and contribute to a deeper understanding of complex concepts, while fostering metacognitive development.

    “Research by Walan and Brink [4] has demonstrated that activities engaging students in the design and construction of digital artifacts enhance learning and contribute to a deeper understanding of complex concepts, while fostering metacognitive development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The development of digital skills is associated with significant improvements in students' computational thinking and analytical ability.

    “Recent reviews [2,[5][6] indicate that the development of digital skills is associated with significant improvements in students' computational thinking and analytical ability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2,[5][6]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Working in small groups facilitated communication, idea exchange, role distribution and mutual support.

    “According to the students, working in small groups facilitated communication, idea exchange, role distribution and mutual support.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    AR integration in educational settings can significantly increase interaction, student engagement, and learning motivation.

    “Research reviews emphasize that AR integration in educational settings can significantly increase interaction, student engagement, and learning motivation [8], aligning with constructivist pedagogical principles and inquiryand action-based learning approaches in primary education [13].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [8]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [13]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    As a small-scale pilot with a limited sample, this study offers exploratory rather than generalizable findings, potentially influenced by the novelty of the technology.

    “As a small-scale pilot with a limited sample, this study offers exploratory rather than generalizable findings, potentially influenced by the novelty of the technology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Creating AR content promoted deeper engagement, enhancing meaning-making and self-efficacy in line with experiential and constructivist learning.

    “The findings suggest that creating AR content promoted deeper engagement, enhancing meaning-making and self-efficacy in line with experiential and constructivist learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The present study highlights the potential of AR as a pedagogical tool capable of supporting experiential learning, active participation, creativity, and collaboration.

    “The findings highlight the potential of AR as a learning medium that supports students' active, creative, and reflective participation in the educational process.”
    • Also stated in: § 4 Conclusions · plain
      “In summary, the present study highlights the potential of AR as a pedagogical tool capable of supporting experiential learning, active participation, creativity, and collaboration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
28 of 28

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participatory and creative design experiences are directly linked to the development of key 21st-century skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.

    “Participatory and creative design experiences are directly linked to the development of key 21st-century skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Collaborative design and co-construction of digital tools support the development of social and collaborative skills, such as negotiation, communication and collective decision-making.

    “Additionally, collaborative design and co-construction of digital tools were proven to support the development of social and collaborative skills, such as negotiation, communication and collective decision-making -core components of 21st-century competencies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Zapworks platform is user-friendly for primary education students.

    “Part of this is a pilot study, familiarising students with the use of a user-friendly AR content development platform.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The selected Geography module (The shape and movements of the Earth) is abstract and spatial in nature, and therefore benefits from visualization and interactive representation.

    “The Geography module (“The shape and movements of the Earth”) was selected due to its abstract and spatial nature, which benefits from visualization and interactive representation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Challenges encountered when using new digital tools are typical.

    “Such challenges are typical when using new digital tools and were mitigated through collaboration.”
5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Two different papers share the same journal article identifier

    Minor

    References 16 and 17 list different authors and titles but assign both papers article 678 in volume 15 of Education Sciences (2025). The same journal article identifier cannot identify both distinct papers.

1 of 1

Cites

The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Li, X., Wang, Y., Chen, L.: Augmented reality in higher education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Education Sciences, 15(6), 678 (2025).
  2. Singh, R., Sharma, P.: Augmented reality in educational settings. Trends and research gaps. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1458695 (2024).
  3. Alfonso, A., Morgado, L., Noguera, I., Sepúlveda-Parrini, P., Hernandez-Leo, D., Alkhasawneh, S. N., Spilker, M. J., Carvalho, I. C.: Flexible learning by design: Enhancing faculty digital competence and engagement through the FLeD Project. Education Sciences, 15(7), 934 (2025).

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Rellia, M., Koutromanos, G., Tsoli, K., & Fokides, E.
Affiliations
  • National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (GR)
  • University of the Aegean (GR)
ORCID
Venue
Practitioner Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network
Publisher
The Immersive Learning Research Network
Published
2026-06-26
Pages
54-59
DOI
10.56198/axbdwv11
OpenAlex
W7166153324
Cited by
0
References
0
FWCI
0.00
Type
conference paper
Language
en
Open access
Locations
International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN) (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Augmented Reality Applications
  • Social Sciences › Education › Education and Technology Integration
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Multimedia Learning Systems
Keywords
augmented reality, student-generated content, primary education, student agency, educational technology

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