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Cited by 265Online and Blended LearningAdult and Continuing Education TopicsEducational Leadership and Innovation

Challenges Faced by Adult Learners in Online Distance Education: A Literature Review

Open access
Kara, Mehmet, Erdoğdu, Fatih, Kokoç, Mehmet, Cagiltay, Kursat·2019·Open Praxis
DOI 10.5944/openpraxis.11.1.929
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Abstract

Although online distance education provides adult learners with an opportunity for life-long learning, there are still factors challenging them to engage in educational processes. The purpose of this study is to explore the challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education through the analysis of the relevant literature. The articles (N=36) published in the key journals in the fields of open and distance education, instructional technology, and adult education were reviewed and analyzed through constant comparative analysis in the current study. The findings reveal that adult learners have challenges related to internal, external, and program-related factors indicating the interrelated nature of these challenges. The findings also show that the challenges experienced by adult learners vary depending on their age, gender, knowledge and skills as well as the context in which they study. The findings of this study, which has an exploratory nature, have several implications for distance education stakeholders such as administrators, instructors, instructional designers, and policy makers.

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  • This behavior is particularly prevalent when students perceive time constraints or multi-semester academic fatigue, leading them to rely on rapid prompt engineering and verbatim copy-pasting to meet assessment deadlines rather than synthesizing the provided pedagogical content.

    “This behavior is particularly prevalent when students perceive time constraints or multi-semester academic fatigue, leading them to rely on rapid prompt engineering and verbatim copy-pasting to meet assessment deadlines rather than synthesizing the provided pedagogical content (Cercone, 2008;Kara et al., 2019).”

    From Navigating Academic Integrity and Student Rationalisations of Generative AI in Vocational Online Learning Environments (2026) · cites this paper as Kara et al., 2019

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

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  • Recent empirical research strongly supports the phenomenon of learners bypassing foundational course materials in favor of unedited AI outputs.

    “Recent empirical research in educational technology and cognitive psychology strongly supports the phenomenon of learners bypassing foundational course materials in favor of unedited AI outputs (Cercone, 2008;Hong et al., 2025;Kara et al., 2019;Risko & Gilbert, 2016).”

    From Navigating Academic Integrity and Student Rationalisations of Generative AI in Vocational Online Learning Environments (2026) · cites this paper as Kara et al., 2019

    The available passage discusses adult learners’ challenges with online education, including technology competence and learner support, but does not address bypassing foundational course materials for unedited AI outputs. Searches for that behavior and for AI outputs found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)

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  • Over time, cognitive dependency undermines authentic skill acquisition, demonstrating how short-term efficiency goals override deep learning when assessment models fail to account for automated offloading.

    “Over time, this creates a cognitive dependency that undermines authentic skill acquisition, demonstrating how short-term efficiency goals override deep learning when assessment models fail to account for automated offloading (Cercone, 2008;Hong et al., 2025;Kara et al., 2019;Risko & Gilbert, 2016).”

    From Navigating Academic Integrity and Student Rationalisations of Generative AI in Vocational Online Learning Environments (2026) · cites this paper as Kara et al., 2019

    The Conclusion (page unavailable) recommends dynamic assessment tools for adult online learners, but does not link assessment to automated offloading, cognitive dependency, or diminished skill acquisition. Searches for those concepts and for short-term efficiency versus deep learning found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed mechanism. (LLM, conf=0.77)

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2 of the 54 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 9

  1. Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of Adult Learners With Implications for Online Learning Design. AACE Journal, 16(2), 137–159. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/24286
  2. Chu, R. & Tsai, C. C. (2009). Self-directed learning readiness, Internet self-efficacy and preferences towards constructivist Internet-based learning environments among higher-aged adults. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(5), 489–501. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00324 · DOI
  3. De Paepe, L., Zhu, C., & DePryck, K. (2018). Drop-out, Retention, Satisfaction and Attainment of Online Learners of Dutch in Adult Education. International Journal on E-Learning, 17(3), 303–323. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/174173
  4. Knowles, M. (1996). Adult Learning. In Robert L. Craig (Ed.), The ASTD Training and Development Handbook (pp. 253–264). NY: McGraw-Hill.
  5. Martinez, M. (2003). High attrition rates in e-learning: Challenges, predictors and solutions. The E-Learning Developers’ Journal. Retrieved from https://www.elearningguild.com/pdf/2/071403MGT-L.pdf
  6. Park, J. H., & Choi, H. J. (2009). Factors Influencing Adult Learners’ Decision to Drop Out or Persist in Online Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 207–217. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/jeductechsoci.12.4.207 · DOI
  7. Tekinarslan, E. (2004). Project-based distributed learning and adult learners. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 5(2), 74–80. Retrieved from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/makale_goster.php?id=136
  8. Wang, V. C. (2011). Online Adult Education: Policy, Access, Completion and Equity. In Encyclopedia of Information Communication Technologies and Adult Education Integration (pp. 506–520). IGI Global.
  9. (self.__next_s=self.__next_s||[]).push([0,{"children":"window.__ENV__ = {\"RECAPTCHA_SITE_KEY\":\"6LcYznklAAAAAPGZZaBoCrKLs-JTufAxQql-LxNH\",\"SERVICE_CODE\":\"up-j-op\",\"FRONTEND_URL\":\"https://openpraxis.org\",\"FRONTEND_DOMAIN\":\"openpraxis.org\",\"OJS_API_URL\":\"https://api.account.up-j-op.ubiquityjournal.website/api/journal/1\"};","id":"public-env"}])This page is for printing. If you wish to read this article, please visit its full version.Challenges Faced by Adult Learners in Online Distance Education: A Literature ReviewMehmet KaraFatih ErdoğduMehmet KokoçKursat CagiltayAbstractAlthough online distance education provides adult learners with an opportunity for life-long learning, there are still factors challenging them to engage in educational processes. The purpose of this study is to explore the challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education through the analysis of the relevant literature. The articles (N=36) published in the key journals in the fields of open and distance education, instructional technology, and adult education were reviewed and analyzed through constant comparative analysis in the current study. The findings reveal that adult learners have challenges related to internal, external, and program-related factors indicating the interrelated nature of these challenges. The findings also show that the challenges experienced by adult learners vary depending on their age, gender, knowledge and skills as well as the context in which they study. The findings of this study, which has an exploratory nature, have several implications for distance education stakeholders such as administrators, instructors, instructional designers, and policy makers.Year: 2019Volume: 11 Issue: 1Page/Article: 5-22DOI: 10.5944/openpraxis.11.1.929Accepted on Jan 21, 2019Published on Mar 31, 2019Peer ReviewedCC BY 4.0 · DOI

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Authors
Kara, M., Erdoğdu, F., Kokoç, M., & Cagiltay, K.
Affiliations
  • Amasya Üniversitesi (TR)
  • Trabzon University (TR)
Corresponding author
Kara, Mehmet
ORCID
Venue
Open Praxis
Publisher
International Council for Open and Distance Education
Published
2019-03-31
Volume
11
Issue
1
Pages
5
ISSN
  • 1369-9997 (ISSN-L)
  • 2304-070X
DOI
10.5944/openpraxis.11.1.929
OpenAlex
W2920407843
Cited by
265
References
54
Citations by year
2026: 21 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 3
FWCI
66.17
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Open Praxis (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Open Praxis (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • OpenMETU (Middle East Technical University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
  • Social Sciences › Education › Adult and Continuing Education Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Educational Leadership and Innovation
Keywords
adult learners, online distance learning, open and distance learning, lifelong learning, student learning difficulties, student engagement, instructional design, adult education

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