Is rumination a risk and a protective factor?

May combine two claims.

Brooding and positive rumination are distinct but related constructs that share a common process of affect amplification.

“Results supported a conceptualization of brooding and positive rumination as distinct but related constructs, represented as a common process of affect amplification to explain how rumination may amplify resilience or risk in predicting depressive symptoms (χ = 195.07, Δχ = 8.78, p < .001, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .07).”

May combine two claims.

Inclusion of modification indices improved fit of all models, with Model 2 superior to Model 1.

“The inclusion of modification indices improved the fit of all models, with Model 2 demonstrating superior fit compared to Model 1”

May combine two claims.

The CES-D used to measure depressive symptoms contains four reverse-scored PA items but no items specific to anhedonia.

“the CES-D that we utilized to measure depressive symptoms contains four items on PA that are reverse-scored, but it contains no items specific to anhedonia.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Missing data percentages were 0.61% at Week 1, 0.33% at Week 8, and 0.56% combined across weeks.

“0.61% of data were missing at Week 1 and 0.33% of data were missing at Week 8 for a combined 0.56% of missingness across weeks.”

May combine two claims.

Greater trait PA predicted greater positive rumination and less brooding.

“greater trait PA predicted greater positive rumination and less brooding.”

May combine two claims.

AIC and BIC for Model 2 were slightly lower than Model 1 and considerably lower than Model 3.

“Model 2 best fit the data based on the Akaike information criterion (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), which demonstrated slightly lower values than Model 1 and considerably lower values than Model 3”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The presented findings represent the only known examination of the joint contributions of positive rumination and brooding.

“the presented findings represent the only known examination of the joint contributions of positive rumination and brooding.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Positive affect builds mental and physical resources that broaden thought and behavior repertoires, which may improve resilience against depressive moods and behaviors.

“Specifically, this theory asserts that PA builds mental and physical resources to widen the range of thoughts and behaviors in which an individual is willing to engage, which may improve resiliency against the development of depressive moods and behaviors.”

• cites Fredrickson, 2001, 2004Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Rumination can concern positive, negative, or neutral affective content.

“Rumination may be in reference to positive affective content, negative affective content, or be neutral in affective valence (Feldman et al., 2008; Treynor, Gonzalez, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2003).”

• cites Feldman et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Treynor et al., 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Greater positive affect increases resources available to adaptively endure everyday challenges and appreciate positive events, which may protect against depressive symptoms over time.

“While not limited to depressive symptoms, the broaden-and-build theory predicts that greater PA increases the resources available to adaptively endure everyday challenges and appreciate positive events, which may protect against depressive symptoms over time.”

• cites Fredrickson, 2001, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Brooding is a maladaptive cognitive process that increases negative affect and predicts greater depressive symptoms.

“As a counterpart to positive rumination, brooding refers to responding to negative events and mood states with perseverative cognitive focus on negative content, which represents a maladaptive cognitive process that increases NA and predicts greater depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991; Treynor et al., 2003).”

• cites Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991Not checked yet

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• cites Treynor et al., 2003Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Trait positive affect inhibits the risk conferred by trait negative affect and may similarly affect risk conferred by cognitive tendencies such as brooding.

“In addition to distinctly predicting depressive symptoms, trait PA inhibits the risk conferred by trait NA and may exert similar effects on the risk conferred by cognitive tendencies such as brooding.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Rumination is one way events may be labeled positive or negative and is an ongoing affective experience that shifts in valence and intensity based on interpretation.

“Rumination represents one way events may be labeled as positive (through positive rumination) or negative (through brooding) and is an ongoing affective experience that shifts in valance and intensity based on how an event is interpreted (Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988; pp. 1-25).”

• cites Ortony et al., 1988Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Positive rumination is an adaptive cognitive process that increases positive affect and predicts fewer depressive symptoms.

“Positive rumination refers to responding to positive events and mood states with perseverative cognitive focus on positive content, which represents an adaptive cognitive process that increases PA and predicts fewer depressive symptoms (Feldman et al., 2008).”

• cites Feldman et al., 2008Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Response styles theory holds that maladaptive cognitive responses to negative affect and negative-affect-eliciting events predict depressive symptoms, with rumination on negative affective content as a central depressogenic response.

“Theoretical understanding of rumination is rooted in response styles theory (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991), which discusses maladaptive cognitive responses to NA and NA-eliciting events that predict depressive symptoms and emphasizes rumination on negative affective content as a central depressogenic cognitive response.”

• cites Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Rumination is often categorically labeled as a harmful cognitive response that diminishes resilience and predicts poor health outcomes, especially depressive symptoms.

“rumination is often categorically labeled as a harmful cognitive response that diminishes resiliency and predicts a range of poor health outcomes, especially depressive symptoms (Harvey, Watkins, Mansell, & Shafran, 2009; Ottaviani et al., 2016).”

• cites Harvey et al., 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Ottaviani et al., 2016Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Greater trait positive affect may increase resilience against depressive symptoms by broadening attentional biases and increasing access to alternative cognitive responses.

“Based on this view of depressive symptoms, greater trait PA may increase resiliency against depressive symptoms by broadening attentional biases and increasing access to alternative cognitive responses.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Depressive symptoms use up mental and physical resources and promote inflexible cognitive patterns sustained by negative affect.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Cognitive-affective theories posit that the relationship between trait positive affect and depressive symptoms may be impacted by cognitive processing of positive and negative affect.

“Taken together, cognitive-affective theories posit that the relationship between trait PA and depressive symptoms may be impacted by the cognitive processing of PA and NA.”

May combine two claims.

Greater positive affect broadens capacity to engage in adaptive cognitive responses that increase positive affect and to avoid maladaptive responses that slow recovery from negative affect.

“The broaden-and-build theory proposes that greater PA broadens an individual’s capacity to engage in adaptive cognitive responses to further increase PA (e.g., positive rumination) and evade maladaptive cognitive responses (e.g., brooding) to recover faster from NA.”

• cites Fredrickson, 2001, 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

All events can elicit positive and negative affect, and the valence of the affective experience depends on cognitive interpretation.

“Consequently, all events have the potential to elicit PA and NA, with the valence of a given affective experience impacted by how the event is cognitively interpreted.”

May combine two claims.

Rumination may be both a protective factor and a risk factor.

“Rumination may represent a protective and a risk factor, which may better enable individuals who brood to redirect their rumination on positive content and thereby reduce their risk of depressive symptoms.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Appraisal theories hold that events are labeled positive or negative based on cognitive interpretations and the resulting affect.

“As a framework to understand how positive rumination and brooding may impact PA and NA, appraisal theories assert that events are labeled as positive or negative based on cognitive interpretations of specific events and the resultant affect elicited by those events (Ellsworth & Scherer, 2003).”

• cites Ellsworth & Scherer, 2003Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Positive affect builds resilience by increasing adaptive cognitive responses that promote positive affect and reducing maladaptive responses that diminish negative affect.

“In particular, PA is proposed to build resiliency by increasing access to adaptive cognitive responses to promote PA and reducing use of maladaptive cognitive responses to diminish negative affectivity (NA; Fredrickson, 2001, 2004).”

• cites Fredrickson, 2001, 2004Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Greater trait positive affect may predict both forms of rumination and through these cognitive pathways distinctly predict depressive symptoms.

“By promoting experiences of PA and recovery from NA, greater trait PA may predict both forms of rumination and through these cognitive pathways distinctly predict depressive symptoms.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The broaden-and-build theory links trait and state positive affect to a wide range of behaviors and cognitions.

“The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotion links trait and state PA to a wide range of behaviors and cognitions (Fredrickson, 2001, 2004).”

• cites Fredrickson, 2001, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

High trait positive affect protects against depressive symptoms and related non-suicidal self-injury, while low trait positive affect is a risk factor.

“High trait PA is a protective factor against depressive symptoms and related non-suicidal self-injury, with low trait PA conversely representing a risk factor for these conditions (Naragon-Gainey, Watson, & Markon, 2009; Watson, Gamez, & Simms, 2005).”

• cites Naragon-Gainey et al., 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Watson et al., 2005Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The RPA positive rumination items had Cronbach's α .73-.76 in a previous study.

“Cronbach’s α ranged from .73-.76 in a previous study (Feldman et al., 2008).”

• cites Feldman et al., 2008Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Clinical literature commonly assumes that rumination and mindfulness are contradictory cognitive responses, but this unexamined assumption may limit clinical use of the potential strengths inherent in both cognitive responses.

“Clinical literature commonly assumes that rumination and mindfulness are contradictory cognitive responses (Ietsugu et al., 2015; Snippe et al., 2015), but this unexamined assumption may limit our capacity to clinically utilize the potential strengths inherent in both cognitive responses.”

• cites Ietsugu et al., 2015Not checked yet

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• cites Snippe et al., 2015Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Positive rumination is negatively correlated with depressive symptoms over and above brooding and negatively correlated with brooding.

“Second, positive rumination is demonstrated to be negatively correlated with depressive symptoms over and above brooding and negatively correlated with brooding across multiple studies of depressive symptoms (Feldman et al., 2008; Raes, Daems, Feldman, Johnson, & Van Gucht, 2010), which supports statistical overlap in protective and risk cognitive pathways despite proposed conceptual distinction.”

• cites Feldman et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Raes et al., 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Research supports brooding as a risk mechanism and positive rumination as a protective mechanism in mediation relationships.

“Research supports mediation relationships for brooding as a risk mechanism and positive rumination as a protective mechanism (Arger et al., 2012; Harding et al., 2014; Mezulis et al., 2011; Roelofs et al., 2008), but the shared variance between these two cognitive responses additionally may explain how protective and risk factors relate and are jointly transmitted in the relationships between”

• cites Arger et al., 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Harding et al., 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Mezulis et al., 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Greater positive rumination predicted fewer anhedonic symptoms, despite lack of overall significance predicting depressive symptoms or depressive symptoms predicting positive rumination.

“They demonstrated that greater positive rumination predicted fewer anhedonic symptoms, despite a lack of overall significance predicting depressive symptoms or depressive symptoms predicting positive rumination.”

• cites Nelis, Holmes, & Raes, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Brooding measured by the RRS brooding subscale had internal consistency α = .80 in this sample.

“In our study, α = .80.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

An overall lack of research on the integration of cognitive mechanisms in the relationship between trait affect and depressive symptoms limits available literature to support the proposed relationships.

“an overall lack of research on the integration of cognitive mechanisms in the relationship between trait affect and depressive symptoms limits available literature to support the proposed relationships.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Positive rumination and brooding are theoretically proposed to predict depressive symptoms through a perseverative cognitive process that amplifies affect.

“Positive rumination and brooding are theoretically proposed to predict depressive symptoms through a perseverative cognitive process (i.e., rumination) that amplifies affect.”

• cites Weitzman et al., 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Rumination may represent a protective and a risk factor that impacts PA and NA.

“Rumination may represent a protective and a risk factor that impacts PA and NA”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Rumination as a concept is proposed to amplify affect regardless of valence.

“Rumination as a concept is proposed to amplify affect, regardless of the valence of the affect.”

May combine two claims.

Trait mindfulness was negatively associated with negative rumination but not associated with positive rumination.

“trait mindfulness was negatively associated with negative rumination but not associated with positive rumination.”

• cites Kiken and Shook (2014)Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Affect amplification as defined by Weitzman et al. (2011) implicates rumination as a form of affect amplification.

“Affect amplification as defined by Weitzman et al. (2011) implicates rumination as a form of affect amplification”

• cites Weitzman et al. (2011)Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Trait PA, trait NA, and cognitive responses were measured at Week 1, which limited the prospective nature of the causal model and prevented statistically demonstrating temporal precedence of trait PA before ruminative responses.

“trait PA, trait NA, and cognitive responses were measured at Week 1, which limited the prospective nature of the causal model and prevented us from statistically demonstrating the temporal precedence of trait PA before ruminative responses.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The current study applied a non-experimental design that is consistent with causality but cannot directly test causal relationships due to only two time points and lack of direct experimental manipulation.

“the current study applied a non-experimental design that is consistent with causality but cannot directly test for causal relationships due to the presence of only two time points and lack of direct experimental manipulation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

If redirecting brooding to positive rumination may be considered a form of reappraisal, this shift in ruminative focus may improve control over an individual's event-specific experiences of PA.

“If redirecting brooding to positive rumination may be considered a form of reappraisal, this shift in ruminative focus may improve control over an individual’s event-specific experiences of PA.”

May combine two claims.

The impact of positive rumination may be specific to anhedonia, with greater positive rumination predicting fewer anhedonic depressive symptoms but not predicting the excess of negative affect and associated symptoms that comprise depressive disorders.

“This finding suggested that the impact of positive rumination may be specific to anhedonia, with greater positive rumination predicting fewer anhedonic depressive symptoms but not predicting the excess of negative affect and associated symptoms that comprise depressive disorders.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Both cognitive responses may represent the same underlying cognitive process.

“Both cognitive responses may represent the same underlying cognitive process, which could support a more unified literature in understanding how trait affect predicts depressive symptoms through shared language.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Trait positive affect measured by the ATQ PA subscale had internal consistency α = .81 in this sample.

“In our study, α = .81.”

May combine two claims.

Greater brooding is demonstrated to predict greater depressive symptoms and greater positive rumination is demonstrated to predict greater hypomanic symptoms.

“greater brooding is demonstrated to predict greater depressive symptoms and greater positive rumination is demonstrated to predict greater hypomanic symptoms (Feldman et al., 2008; Johnson, McKenzie, & McMurrich, 2008; Raes et al., 2010).”

• cites Feldman et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Johnson, McKenzie, & McMurrich, 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Raes et al., 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Positive rumination and brooding may exert dual effects on positive and negative affect, with positive rumination amplifying positive affect while diminishing negative affect and brooding amplifying negative affect while diminishing positive affect.

“Positive rumination and brooding may exert dual effects on PA and NA as part of this affect amplification process, with positive rumination amplifying PA while diminishing NA and brooding amplifying NA while diminishing PA.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In this study, the positive rumination subscale of the RPA had internal consistency α = .83.

“In our study, α = .83.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Trait negative affect measured by the ATQ NA subscale had internal consistency α = .88 in this sample.

“In our study, α = .88.”

May combine two claims.

Brooding is distinctly impacted by PA and NA and potentially exerts its effects on depressive symptoms through increasing NA and decreasing PA in response to events.

“which may explain why brooding is distinctly impacted by PA and NA and how brooding potentially exerts its effects on depressive symptoms through increasing NA and decreasing PA in response to events”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Response styles theory defines rumination as cognitive responses that increase the intensity of affective content.

“response styles theory (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991) similarly defines rumination as a category of cognitive responses that increase the intensity of the affective content on which an individual perseverates.”

• cites Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Depressive symptoms measured by the CES-D had internal consistency α = .88 at Week 1 and α = .86 at Week 8 in this sample.

“In our study, α = .88 at Week 1 and α = .86 at Week 8.”

May combine two claims.

Positive rumination and brooding both describe ruminative responses that amplify affective content and thereby predict depressive symptoms.

“both describe ruminative responses that are proposed to amplify affective content (Gilbert & Gruber, 2014; Weitzman, McHugh, & Otto, 2011) and through amplifying affect subsequently predict depressive symptoms (Feldman et al., 2008; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991).”

• cites Gilbert & Gruber, 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Weitzman et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Feldman et al., 2008Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Mindfulness may be clinically applied as a similar or complementary approach to rumination.

“mindfulness instead may be clinically applied as a similar or complementary approach to rumination.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Missing data were handled through multiple imputation in SPSS 21.0 for participants who completed at least 80% of each measure.

“Missing data were handled through multiple imputation in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 21.0 for participants who completed at least 80% of each measure (Eekhout et al., 2014).”

• cites Eekhout et al., 2014Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Findings support broaden-and-build theory by demonstrating that trait PA impacts PA and NA distinctly, which strengthens the theoretical view that greater PA both amplifies experiences of PA and mitigates experiences of NA.

“Findings support broaden-and-build theory by demonstrating that trait PA impacts PA and NA distinctly, which strengthens the theoretical view that greater PA both amplifies experiences of PA and mitigates experiences of NA.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Affect amplification may offer a unifying cognitive process to describe overlapping but distinct cognitive mechanisms in predicting depressive symptoms.

“Affect amplification may offer a unifying cognitive process to describe overlapping but distinct cognitive mechanisms in predicting depressive symptoms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Positive rumination and brooding represent more malleable and event-specific responses.

“positive rumination and brooding represent more malleable and event-specific responses.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Positive rumination and brooding are more malleable and event-specific than trait affect.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Integrating understanding of resiliency against and risk toward depressive symptoms may better enable individuals to think adaptively in addition to or in spite of their trait affective tendencies.

“integrating understanding of resiliency against and risk toward depressive symptoms may better enable individuals to think adaptively in addition to or in spite of their trait affective tendencies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Interventions that target both positive rumination and brooding may present a greater therapeutic benefit for individuals with bipolar mood symptoms.

“interventions that target both positive rumination and brooding may present a greater therapeutic benefit for individuals with bipolar mood symptoms”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The nature of trait PA theoretically supports the temporal precedence of trait affect due to its description as a stable dimension of temperament across time and situations.

“the nature of trait PA does theoretically support the temporal precedence of trait affect due to its description as a stable dimension of temperament across time and situations.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Trait positive affect is a stable dimension of temperament across time and situations.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Shared variance between positive rumination and brooding may explain how protective and risk factors relate and are jointly transmitted in relationships between trait affect and depressive symptoms.

“but the shared variance between these two cognitive responses additionally may explain how protective and risk factors relate and are jointly transmitted in the relationships between trait affect and depressive symptoms.”