Practical strategies for instructional faculty and librarians designing accessible instructional materials

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

WCAG guidelines identify three levels of conformance for success criteria: A is the lowest, AA the middle, and AAA the highest.

“The guidelines identify three levels of conformance for success criteria included in those four principles, with A being the lowest, AA the middle and AAA the highest.18”

• cites [18]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the US, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the ADA of 1990 are two key pieces of legislation.

“In the US, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the ADA of 1990 are two key pieces of legislation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2024, a final rule was added to Title II of the ADA to require state and local government web content and mobile applications, including those of public colleges and universities, to meet specific digital accessibility standards.

“In 2024, a final rule was added to Title II of the ADA to require state and local government web content and mobile applications, including those of public colleges and universities, to meet specific digital accessibility standards.17”

• cites [17]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PowerPoint checker will flag hard-to-read text using the minimum contrast level.

“While the PowerPoint checker will flag hard-toread text using that minimum level, creators may identify difficult-to-read slides through visually inspecting the slides.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Linder et al. also note that many institutions lack a single-point person or office for accessibility and instead rely on overburdened and overwhelmed staff or faculty who have not been formally trained in the work.

“Linder et al. 24 also note that many institutions lack a single-point person or office for accessibility and instead rely on overburdened and overwhelmed staff or faculty who have not been formally trained in the work.”

• cites [24]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Indicating the format of the object or the platform used to host the object helps the creator select accessibility tools to check and remediate the content.

“Indicating the format of the object or the platform used to host the object helps the creator select accessibility tools to check and remediate the content.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The types of errors in instructional materials depend on what kind of instructional object is being evaluated.

“The types of errors in instructional materials will depend on what kind of instructional object is being evaluated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The rise of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) and debates over the possible benefits and pitfalls these tools and technologies pose to accessibility.

“Any discussion of designing online learning objects would also be remiss if it failed to acknowledge the rise of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) and debates over the possible benefits and pitfalls these tools and technologies pose to accessibility. 9”

• cites [9]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Microsoft PowerPoint enables users to mark an image as decorative, indicating to a screen reader that the content can be skipped without losing meaning, while Google Slides does not.

“For example, while Microsoft PowerPoint enables users to mark an image as decorative, indicating to a screen reader that the content can be skipped without losing meaning, Google Slides does not.”

May combine two claims.

Three common types of accessibility errors in presentation slides that require more than an initial scan with an automated checker are incorrect reading order of objects, inadequate contrast between background and foreground elements, and missing or poorly written alt text.

“Three examples of common types of accessibility errors in presentation slides that require more than an initial scan with an automated checker are the incorrect reading order of objects, inadequate contrast between background and foreground elements, and missing or poorly written alt text.”

May combine two claims.

The format of instructional materials affects both the ability to develop accessible content and the available accessibility checkers for that content.

“The format of the materials, such as whether the slides were created in Microsoft PowerPoint or Google Slides, affects both the ability to develop accessible content and the available accessibility checkers for that content.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Audio description describes visual elements that cannot be understood from the main soundtrack and is helpful to those with visual impairments.

“Audio description is used to describe visual elements that cannot be understood from the main soundtrack; they are helpful to those with visual impairments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The W3C alt decision tree can help users determine whether an image requires alternative text.

“The W3C alt decision tree can help users determine whether an image requires alternative text, 30 while WebAIM's alt text guide provides specific recommendations for writing effective alt text.31”

• cites [30]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Guilbaud et al. revealed uneven levels of readiness for faculty across multiple disciplines to design and deliver accessible online courses and found that most faculty receive insufficient training in accessibility.

“Guilbaud et al. 20 revealed uneven levels of readiness for faculty across multiple disciplines to design and deliver accessible online courses and found that most faculty receive insufficient training in accessibility.”

• cites [20]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Captions and audio description are addressed in WCAG success criterion 1.2, which falls under the perceivable principle.

“Two accessibility elements that are unique to audio-visual materials are captions and audio description, both addressed in success criterion 1.2, which falls under the perceivable principle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Starting with remediating existing content can be a valuable step in achieving the goal of proactively designing accessible materials.

“The paper presents a pragmatic approach to design, acknowledging that even though proactively designing accessible materials is the goal of many instructors, starting with remediating existing content can be a valuable step in achieving that goal.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Microsoft's checker will automatically identify the reading order of content on each slide, but the user must manually inspect that reading order to ensure that it is correct.

“While Microsoft's checker will automatically identify the reading order of content on each slide, the user must manually inspect that reading order to ensure that it is correct.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Running accessibility checks on one's own materials can be a beneficial way to learn about accessible design while also starting the process of remediation.

“Running accessibility checks on one's own materials can also be a beneficial way to learn about accessible design while also starting the process of remediation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The four principles of WCAG are POUR: content must be perceivable, operable, understandable, and robust.

“The four principles of WCAG are referred to as POUR, specifying that content must be perceivable, operable, understandable, and robust.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Meeting a minimum standard for the contrast between foreground text (and images of text) and the background is part of the perceivable principle in WCAG, namely criterion 1.4.3.

“Meeting a minimum standard for the contrast between foreground text (and images of text) and the background is also part of the perceivable principle in WCAG, namely criterion 1.4.3.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Title II of the ADA extended the protections of the Rehabilitation Act to apply to all postsecondary institutions, even those that did not receive federal funding.

“Title II of the ADA extended the protections of the Rehabilitation Act to apply to all postsecondary institutions, even those that did not receive federal funding.16”

• cites [16]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

WCAG does not provide detailed guidelines on the number of words or characters in a caption line or the level of detail required for audio descriptions.

“WCAG does not provide detailed guidelines on the number of words or characters that should be included in a caption line or the level of detail required for audio descriptions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

WebAIM's alt text guide provides specific recommendations for writing effective alt text.

“The W3C alt decision tree can help users determine whether an image requires alternative text, 30 while WebAIM's alt text guide provides specific recommendations for writing effective alt text.31”

• cites [31]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Automated accessibility checkers will not identify every type of error or provide clear guidance on how to correct all errors.

“It is worth noting that automated checkers will not identify every type of error or provide clear guidance on how to correct all errors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Rehabilitation Act prohibits discriminating against people with a disability in federally funded programmes and agencies.

“The Rehabilitation Act prohibits discriminating against people with a disability in federally funded programmes and agencies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Learning about common types of accessibility errors in one's own materials and how to correct those can assist faculty and librarians in avoiding common pitfalls when designing new materials.

“Learning about common types of accessibility errors in their own materials and how to correct those can assist faculty and librarians in avoiding common pitfalls when designing new materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) were developed by an international group, the W3C, to provide recommendations for making web content accessible.

“The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) were developed by an international group, the W3C, to provide recommendations for making web content accessible.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Grackle Workspace integrates with Google Docs and Google Sheets as well as Google Slides, but there is a cost associated with the software after a free trial period.

“Grackle Workspace integrates with Google Docs and Google Sheets as well as Google Slides, but there is a cost associated with the software after a free trial period.28”

• cites [28]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Not all materials used for a course are created by the instructor; sometimes faculty inherit materials or course modules from previous instructors, or they link to third party materials such as YouTube videos.

“It is worth noting that not all materials used for a course are created by the instructor.Sometimes faculty inherit materials or course modules from previous instructors, or they link to third party materials such as YouTube videos.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The minimum contrast level identified for AA compliance of most standard-sized text is 4.5:1.

“The minimum contrast level identified for AA compliance of most standard-sized text is 4.5:1.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

An inventory can help faculty and librarians identify and prioritise frequently used materials.

“In either case, an inventory can help faculty and librarians identify and prioritise frequently used materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Linder et al. contend that the question of responsibility for online accessibility is commonly asked across many campuses, and there is often a high level of uncertainty and anxiety regarding the answer.

“Linder et al. 23 contend that the question of responsibility for online accessibility is commonly asked across many campuses, and there is often a high level of uncertainty and anxiety regarding the answer.”

• cites [23]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Microsoft PowerPoint has a built-in accessibility checker, while Google Slides does not and requires the use of a third party tool called Grackle Workspace.

“Another difference is that Microsoft PowerPoint has a built-in accessibility checker, while Google Slides does not and requires the use of a third party tool called Grackle Workspace.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some considerations, such as adequate colour contrast and having alternative text (alt text), apply to multiple objects, such as presentation slides and webpages in an LMS, while other features, such as closed captions and audio descriptions, are unique to audio-visual materials.

“Some considerations, such as adequate colour contrast and having alternative text (alt text), apply to multiple objects, such as presentation slides and webpages in an LMS, while other features, such as closed captions and audio descriptions, are unique to audio-visual materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There are no universally agreed guidelines for creating captions and audio descriptions.

“Creating captions and audio descriptions can be difficult for those starting out, because there are no universally agreed guidelines.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lowenthal et al. identify additional challenges, such as the lack of resources and time required for faculty and staff to address accessibility issues.

“In addition to recognising inadequate training for faculty and staff and the confusion over who is responsible for accessibility, Lowenthal et al. 25 also identify additional challenges, such as the lack of resources and time required for faculty and staff to address accessibility issues.”

• cites [25]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

WCAG specifies different requirements for pre-recorded versus live videos.

“WCAG also specifies different requirements for pre-recorded versus live videos.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Providing alt text for non-text content, such as photographs, icons and charts, is key to making content perceivable; it is listed as WCAG criterion 1.1.1.

“Like colour contrast, providing alt text for non-text content, such as photographs, icons and charts, is key to making content perceivable; it is listed as criterion 1.1.1.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The rapid shift to online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic intensified discussions and scrutiny of accessible instructional materials.

“As many recognise, however, the rapid shift to online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic intensified these discussions, as online materials faced greater attention and scrutiny than in previous times.3,4,5”

• cites [3]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [4]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [5]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Having alt text is necessary for those with visual impairments who use a screen reader to understand the meaning of an image.

“As with reading order, having alt text is necessary for those with visual impairments who use a screen reader to understand the meaning of an image.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Captions provide visual equivalents for audio information, including speech and non-speech sounds, for people with hearing impairments.

“Captions provide visual equivalents for audio information, encompassing both speech and non-speech sounds, included in the video for people with hearing impairments.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The reading order of various elements on a single slide is important for those using screen readers to ensure that content is read in a logical sequence.

“The reading order of various elements on a single slide (eg the title, images or content boxes) is important for those using screen readers to ensure that content is read in a logical sequence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The most recent update to the ADA stipulates that the minimum level of compliance is now WCAG 2.1, Level AA.

“The most recent update to the ADA stipulates that the minimum level of compliance is now WCAG 2.1, Level AA.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Running accessibility checks on one's own materials helps users identify their own design habits and preferences, which can be influenced by their discipline or background.

“This helps users identify their own design habits and preferences, which can be influenced by their discipline or background.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The ADA final rule sets compliance dates based on population size; public universities with 50,000 or more students must comply by 24th April, 2026, while those with fewer than 50,000 have until 26th April, 2027.

“The final rule also sets compliance dates based on population size; public universities with 50,000 or more students must comply by 24th April, 2026, while those with fewer than 50,000 have until 26th April, 2027.”

May combine two claims.

Automated checkers can detect whether an image has alt text, but they do not provide feedback on what objects or images require alt text or on the quality of that text.

“Automated checkers can detect whether an image has alt text, but they do not provide feedback on what objects or images require alt text or on the quality of that text.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The DCMP Captioning Key provides details on caption length and content.

“The DCMP provides details on caption length and content.”

• cites [33]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The reading order requirement falls under WCAG's success criterion 1.3.2, which is part of the perceivable principle.

“This requirement falls under WCAG's success criterion 1.3.2,which is part of the perceivable principle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Heading structure falls under WCAG success criterion 2.4.6 in the operable section.

“Heading structure falls under success criterion 2.4.6 in the operable section of WCAG.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

As with any automated checker, UDOIT will not detect every possible error in a course.

“As with any automated checker, UDOIT will not detect every possible error in a course.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Canvas checker will highlight the error on the page and provide a brief explanation of the error in the sidebar.

“As with the built-in checker in PowerPoint, the Canvas checker will highlight the error on the page and provide a brief explanation of the error in the sidebar.”

May combine two claims.

Presentation slides are relatively easy to remediate after creation, while videos can be more difficult, particularly in adding audio descriptions.

“While presentation slides are relatively easy to remediate after they have been created, videos can be more difficult, particularly in terms of adding audio descriptions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some newer products incorporating AI, such as Subly, will scan completed videos for common accessibility issues, but such tools are not free.

“There are some newer products incorporating AI, such as Subly, that will scan completed videos for common accessibility issues, but tools like these are not free.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Two common accessibility concerns when designing LMS content pages are employing appropriate heading structure and creating meaningful hyperlinks.

“Two common accessibility concerns when designing LMS content pages, as when designing webpages in general, are employing the appropriate heading structure and creating meaningful hyperlinks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many well-known LMS companies, such as Canvas, have built-in accessibility checkers.

“Many well-known LMS companies, such as Canvas, have built-in accessibility checkers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some well-known vendors such as 3PlayMedia are incorporating AI in their workflows, and newer companies such as Echo Labs use AI along with human review, but those vendors charge a fee.

“Some wellknown vendors in this area are beginning to incorporate AI in their workflows, such as 3PlayMedia, and other newer companies, such as Echo Labs, are using AI along with human review in their process, but those vendors charge a fee for the service.34”

• cites [34]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

No single automated video checker exists to identify all such accessibility issues at once.

“No single automated video checker exists to identify all such accessibility issues at once.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Adding audio description to a completed video requires more technical expertise than adding captions.

“Adding audio description to a completed video requires more technical expertise than adding captions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Platforms such as Canva and Adobe Premier automatically generate captions, and video hosting sites such as YouTube and Vimeo provide automatic captioning.

“Platforms used to create and edit videos, such as Canva and Adobe Premier, will automatically generate captions, and video hosting sites, such as YouTube and Vimeo, also provide automatic captioning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One downside of the Canvas checker is that it only checks one page at a time.

“One downside of the Canvas checker is that it only checks one page at a time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All videos with sound require captions to be accessible.

“While all videos with sound will require captions to be accessible, not all videos require audio description.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Audio description is only required when there are visual elements in the video that are not described or mentioned in the main audio track.

“Audio description is only required when there are visual elements in the video that are not described or mentioned in the main audio track.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

UDOIT scans all pages all at once and provides a single report of accessibility errors for the course pages as a whole.

“The other benefit of UDOIT is that it scans all pages all at once and provides a single report of the accessibility errors for the course pages as a whole.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Creating accessible PDFs is a more complicated process, requiring additional knowledge of accessibility, than creating accessible slides or documents in their original formats.

“Creating accessible pdfs is a more complicated process, requiring additional knowledge of accessibility, than creating accessible slides or documents in their original formats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Free or low-cost programs that auto-generate captions are not available for audio descriptions.

“While there are several free or low-cost programs that will auto-generate captions, such tools are not available for audio descriptions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Remediation of a completed video is more complex than that of presentation slides because there are many accessibility issues to consider, such as captioning, audio description and colour contrast.

“Remediation of a completed video is also more complex than that of presentation slides because there are many accessibility issues to consider, such as captioning, audio description and colour contrast.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vague links like 'click here' or 'read more' are unhelpful because they do not provide users with information about the unique site or source being linked to.

“Vague links like 'click here' or 'read more' are similarly unhelpful, as they do not provide users with information about the unique site or source being linked to.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Link purpose falls under the operable category in WCAG and corresponds to success criterion 2.4.4.

“Like heading structure, link purpose falls under the operable category in WCAG, and corresponds to success criterion 2.4.4.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

UDOIT will check for the presence of captions on any embedded videos.

“In addition, UDOIT will check for the presence of captions on any embedded videos (see Figure 5).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

UDOIT identifies three categories of accessibility barriers: known barriers, potential barriers and review suggestions, to help users prioritise remediation according to WCAG 2.1 AA compliance.

“UDOIT identifies three categories of accessibility barriers: known barriers, potential barriers and review suggestions, to help users prioritise remediation according to WCAG 2.1 AA compliance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Accessibility is a complex topic, and having some basic knowledge of accessibility terminology and laws is necessary for faculty and librarians to create accessible and effective instructional materials.

“Accessibility is a complex topic, and having some basic knowledge of accessibility terminology and laws is necessary for faculty and librarians to create accessible and effective instructional materials.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Many faculty and librarians do not have adequate support from their institutions to devote the time and energy necessary to learn about accessibility, remediate existing materials and proactively design new accessible materials.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Confusion over who is responsible for accessibility at one's college or university can add to the strain felt by faculty and librarians.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

UDOIT provides detailed information about accessibility errors and offers more specific guidance on how to correct errors compared to the built-in checker in Canvas.

“UDOIT provides detailed information about accessibility errors and offers more specific guidance on how to correct errors in comparison to the built-in checker in Canvas.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The process of creating captions has become easier in recent years due to technological advancements in converting speech to text.

“The process of creating captions has become easier in recent years due to technological advancements in converting speech to text.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Rich Content Editor in Canvas has a tool that checks common areas, such as sequential headings, presence of alt text, and contrast ratio for text.

“The Rich Content Editor in Canvas has a tool that will check common areas, such as the use of sequential headings, the presence of alt text and the contrast ratio for text.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Additional AI platforms for captioning include Otter.ai and Clipchamp.

“Additional AI platforms for captioning include Otter.ai and Clipchamp.”