Vigilantism in Moral Philosophy

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Gulabi Gang is a group of women in rural Uttar Pradesh who punish abusive husbands, child molesters, and other oppressive men.

“Another example is the Gulabi Gang, a group of women in rural Uttar Pradesh who punish abusive husbands, child molesters, and other oppressive men (White and Rastogi 318).”

• cites White and Rastogi 318Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Gulabi Gang is an instance of vigilantism.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vigilantism can involve lone vigilantes.

“This leaves out lone vigilantes, such as a case in which a man pursued and shot his son's killer (Johnston 223).”

• cites Johnston 223Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many vigilantes still pay taxes, obey police officers, vote in elections, and otherwise follow the rules of a civil society.

“Many vigilantes will still pay taxes, obey police officers, vote in elections, and otherwise follow the rules of a civil society.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Vigilantes are not always citizens of a community; they can be immigrants, permanent residents, or illegal migrants.

“First, vigilantes are not always citizens of a community.They can be immigrants, permanent residents, even illegal migrants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vigilantism tends to be motivated by a desire for security rather than political goals.

“Vigilantism tends to be motivated by a desire for security rather than political goals, although Schuberth acknowledges that there are some overlapping cases (301).”

• cites Schuberth 301Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Vigilantes are not always organized in groups; many cases involve individual vigilantes.

“Most of all, vigilantes are not always organized in groups.Many of the examples listed in this chapter, and in the following chapters, involve individual vigilantes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Many people around the world do not live in functioning liberal democracies, and for most of human history this has been so.

“Many people around the world do not live in functioning liberal democracies, and for most of human history, this has been so.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Some vigilantes seek to fill a gap in what would have been an operating system of law, but for corruption or catastrophe.

“Some vigilantes seek to fill a gap in what would have been an operating system of law, but for corruption or catastrophe.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Some governments tacitly allow vigilantism or actively support it.

“Some governments tacitly allow vigilantism, or even actively support it.”

May combine two claims.

Although vigilante activity was rampant across the United States in the mid-1800s, anti-vigilante groups were also quite widespread.

“For instance, although vigilante activity was rampant across the United States in the mid-1800s, antivigilante groups were also quite widespread (Brown 121).”

• cites Brown 121Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vigilante mobs of American pioneers often used the argument that their actions were democratic, claiming a kind of immediate direct democracy.

“Indeed, vigilante mobs of American pioneers often used this argument to justify themselves, claiming a kind of immediate direct democracy (Brown 115).”

• cites Brown 115Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The South Carolina Regulators' proceedings amounted to a mock trial rather than a fair hearing; victims were always found guilty and usually hanged immediately.

“However, these proceedings amounted to a mock trial rather than a fair hearing, a bone to throw to the public's conscience.The vigilantes' victims were always found guilty and were usually hanged immediately.”

• cites Brown 109Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The South Carolina Regulators are a vigilante group.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Prior scholarly material on vigilantism is scattered across different academic fields, often without consistency or rigorous discussion.

“There is some prior scholarly material on vigilantism, but it is scattered across different academic fields, often without consistency or rigorous discussion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The objections raised against vigilantism provide a useful set of conditions from which to justify vigilantism.

“Ultimately, I argue that all of these objections can be surmounted in theory, and that the objections raised provide a useful set of conditions from which to justify vigilantism.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Scholars agree that vigilantism involves people taking the law into their own hands.

“First, scholars agree that vigilantism involves people taking the law into their own hands (Brown 22), (Little and Sheffield 797), (Johnston 226), (Abrahams 179), Rosenbaum and Sedeberg 4).”

• cites Brown 22Not matched

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• cites Little and Sheffield 797Not matched

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• cites Johnston 226Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Vigilantism does not involve violating trust or dereliction of duty, and it challenges state structures in a way police brutality does not.

“Vigilantism does not involve either of these concerns, and it challenges the existence of state structures in a way that police brutality does not.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Vigilantism should be understood as an activity undertaken by private citizens.

“For these reasons, vigilantism should be understood as an activity undertaken by private citizens.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The state has legitimate authority over the use of coercive force, such that private citizens who use coercive extra-legal measures presume upon that authority.

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Hactivist groups, Robin Hood-like figures, and non-violent eco-terrorists can be forms of vigilantism.

“However, hactivist groups still seem to be taking the law into their hands, as their actions seem analogous to the two paradigm cases of vigilantism.”

• Also stated in: § 1.2 Vigilantism involves the use of coercive, illegal action. · hedged

  “Conceptually, it is reasonable to say that a hactivist, or a Robin Hood-like figure is taking the law into their own hands.”

• Also stated in: § 1.2 Vigilantism involves the use of coercive, illegal action. · plain

  “In this manner, non-violent eco-terrorist groups seek to punish or prevent individuals from damaging the natural environment.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Scholars agree that vigilantism involves seeking some form of justice.

“Second, scholars agree that vigilantism involves seeking some form of justice (Brown 93), (Little and Sheffield 797), (Johnston 233), (Shotland 31), (Stettner,65), (Abrahams 180), Rosenbaum and Sedeberg 10).”

• cites Brown 93Not matched

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• cites Little and Sheffield 797Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Johnston 233Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In the vigilante's eyes, it is more important to uphold this ethical code than to follow ordinary, legally permissible practices.

“In their eyes, it is more important to uphold this ethical code than it is to follow ordinary, legally permissible practices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

State officials cannot be considered vigilantes even when they abuse their power.

“First, as discussed above, state officials cannot really be considered vigilantes even when they abuse their power.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The vigilante's code of ethics may be based on biased or skewed presuppositions, and may be immune to logical reasoning or real-world facts.

“The vigilante's code of ethics may be based on biased or skewed presuppositions, and it may be immune to logical reasoning or real-world facts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Vigilantism can be morally justified under certain circumstances: a breakdown of the legal system, protection of vulnerable individuals, proportional punishments, due process, attempts to mend larger social issues, and the advancement of justice.

“In spite of these valid concerns, vigilantism can be morally justified under the following circumstances: a breakdown of the legal system, protection of vulnerable individuals, proportional punishments, due process, attempts to mend the larger social issues, and the advancement of justice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Citizen's arrests should not count as vigilantism because the actual punishment is carried out by police and the existing legal system.

“Citizen's arrests are trickier, but since the actual punishment part is carried out by police and the existing legal system, it should not count as a form of vigilantism.”

• cites Brown 125Not matched

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• cites Shotland 32Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vigilantism must involve illegal activity, whether or not it involves violence.

“I do argue that vigilantism must involve illegal activity, whether or not it involves violence.”

• Also stated in: § 1.2 Vigilantism involves the use of coercive, illegal action. · hedged

  “The idea that vigilantism is necessarily extra-legal activity is in accordance with some scholars (Abrahams 180), (Brown 93), (Schneier 111), but it conflicts with others.”

• cites Abrahams 180Not matched

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• cites Brown 93Not matched

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• cites Schneier 111Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The important factor in vigilantism is not whom the vigilante targets, but why they are targeting someone.

“Crucially, the important factor is not whom the vigilante targets, but why they are targeting someone.”

May combine two claims.

Depending on particular circumstances, vigilantism can be morally justified, morally optimal, or unjustified.

“Depending on particular circumstances, vigilantism can be morally justified, morally optimal, or unjustified.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Self-defence should not be grouped under vigilantism.

“For these reasons, any legitimate case of self-defence should not be grouped under vigilantism.”

• Also stated in: § Vigilantism and Self-Defence · plain

  “With regard to Johnston's example of shooting an armed burglar in one's house, this is a case of self-defence.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Similar restrictions on self-defence are used in other countries, so the Canadian account can be generalized.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

On-duty police activity should be classified as police brutality rather than vigilantism.

“In the latter instance, any on-duty activity should be classified as police brutality rather than vigilantism.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vigilantism does not require violence or threats of violence.

“As such, my definition does not restrict vigilantism to cases involving violence or threats thereof.”

• Also stated in: § 1.2 Vigilantism involves the use of coercive, illegal action. · hedged

  “Prima facie, the notion of taking the law into one's hands does not make reference to violence or threats, unless we make the odd assumption that something is physically being taken.”

May combine two claims.

Self-defence requires minimum possible force and aims to defend rather than punish; vigilantism has no such restrictions and can lead to serious harm or death.

“Self-defence requires the use of the minimum possible force, intended to defend rather than to cause harm to another.”

• Also stated in: § Vigilantism and Self-Defence · plain

  “Vigilantism has no such restrictions; it can lead to the serious harm or even death of the vigilante's target.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Other private citizens are committing vigilantism even if they receive assistance from police officers or other state officials.

“It is crucial to note that other private citizens are committing vigilantism even if they receive assistance from police officers or other state officials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Certain personality traits seem to reoccur among vigilantes, such as positive feelings toward the use of power and a tendency to avoid introspection.

“William Kreml notes that certain personality traits seem to reoccur among vigilantes.For instance, vigilantes have positive feelings toward the use of power (Kreml 48), as well as a tendency to avoid introspection (Kreml 53).”

• cites Kreml 48Not matched

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• cites Kreml 53Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Most academic interest in vigilantism lies in sociological studies on particular cases, without much philosophical debate on what it means to be a vigilante.

“Most academic interest in vigilantism lies in sociological studies on particular cases, without much philosophical debate on what it means to be a vigilante, or democratic principles, autonomy and consent.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Vigilantism is an underdeveloped concept in scholarly discourse, particularly within the field of philosophy.

“Vigilantism is an underdeveloped concept in scholarly discourse, particularly within the field of philosophy.”

• Also stated in: § Introductory Remarks · plain

  “Vigilantism is an underdeveloped concept in scholarly discourse, particularly within the field of philosophy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Vigilantes are not killing or intimidating people at random, and are not purposely targeting innocent bystanders.

“They are not killing or intimidating people at random, and they are not purposely targeting innocent bystanders.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The lack of a widely accepted definition leads some scholars to label unrelated activities like police brutality as forms of vigilantism, which is problematic for discussions of both police brutality and vigilantism.

“Indeed, the lack of a widely accepted definition leads some scholars to label unrelated activities like police brutality as forms of vigilantism, which is problematic for discussions of both police brutality and vigilantism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Third party defence falls outside the realm of vigilantism for the same reason self-defence should not be included.

“For my own account, I would say that third party defence falls outside the realm of vigilantism for the same reason that self-defence should not be included.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Social peer pressure should not count as vigilantism.

“Finally, contrary to the views of Rosenbaum and Sedeberg, social peer pressure should not count as vigilantism.”

• Also stated in: § Vigilantism and Self-Defence · plain

  “None of these actions should be considered forms of vigilantism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

One paradox of vigilantism is when the vigilante seeks to uphold the rules of a legal system by breaking the procedural laws of that legal system.

“One of the paradoxes of vigilantism is when the vigilante seeks to uphold the rules of a legal system by breaking the procedural laws of that legal system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The use of coercive extra-legal activity distinguishes vigilantism from social policing, traffic coordination, and other similar activities.

“Ultimately, the use of coercive extra-legal activity distinguishes vigilantism from social policing, traffic coordination, and other similar activities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Police brutality and coercive government actions should not be classified as vigilantism.

“While police brutality and coercive government actions are very problematic for a society, these actions should not be classified as vigilantism.”

• Also stated in: § 1.1 Vigilantism is committed by private citizens. · plain

  “As for coercive government policies, they cannot be classified as examples of vigilantism if they fulfill the criteria for valid law within that jurisdiction.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: There is a coherent distinction between legitimate and illegitimate state authority, or between valid and invalid law.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Legally permissible actions should not be counted as vigilantism.

“If an action is already legally permissible, it is not necessary to take the law upon yourself.”

• Also stated in: § 1.2 Vigilantism involves the use of coercive, illegal action. · plain

  “However, none of these examples can establish that vigilantism should include legally acceptable actions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The vigilante's targets may not be aware of the code of ethics and may not have an opportunity to justify themselves.

“Their targets may not even be aware of this code of ethics, and they may not have an opportunity to justify themselves.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Self-defence does not involve taking the law into one's hands because it is a freely permitted form of action.

“As such, it does not involve taking the law into one's hands, since it is a freely permitted form of action.”

May combine two claims.

Vigilante groups are engaging in self-protection, not self-defence.

“Vigilante groups are arguably engaging in self-protection, in that they intend to create a safer space for themselves and their communities through punishing or preventing apparent threats.”

• Also stated in: § Vigilantism and Self-Defence · plain

  “They are not engaged in self-defence, in that they are not responding to an immediate or imminent physical aggressor in a defensive manner.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Self-defence is in response to a physical threat, whereas vigilantism can address theft, social infractions, or other similar factors.

“Crucially, self-defence is in response to a physical threat, which leaves out cases of vigilantism pertaining to theft, social infractions, or other similar factors.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vigilantes target actual, potential, or imputed transgressors of some normative code.

“## 1.3 The vigilante's target is an actual, potential or imputed transgressor of some normative code.”

• Also stated in: § 1.3 The vigilante's target is an actual, potential or imputed transgressor of some normative code. · plain

  “Rather, the vigilante is following a set of normative rules, and they target only those individuals whom they believe to have broken those rules.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Having a code of ethics or set of rules is key to the vigilante's actions, because it is their justification for breaking the law.

“However, having that code of ethics or set of rules is key to the vigilante's actions, because it is their justification for breaking the law.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

It is not clear what terrorists are accusing an entire race, gender, or culture of doing, what transgression they have committed.

“Additionally, it is not clear what terrorists are accusing an entire race, gender, or culture of doing, what transgression they have committed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Like terrorism, social activism is a tool for sending political and/or social messages, aimed at widespread change in a society.

“Like terrorism, social activism is a tool for sending political and/or social messages, aimed at widespread change in a society.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Vigilantes do not need to meet any standard of proof, let alone proving guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.

“Vigilantes do not need to meet any standard of proof, let alone the very high expectation of proving guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vigilantism targets specific individuals for committing specific transgressions.

“Finally, vigilantism targets specific individuals for committing specific transgressions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Even if vigilantes are acting against the established order, it still seems to be a case of vigilantism.

“I refer back to the case of eco-terrorism; even if the vigilantes are acting against the established order, it still seems to be a case of vigilantism.”

May combine two claims.

Terrorists can attack innocent bystanders to make a statement; vigilantism does not allow the same action.

“Because of this distinction, terrorists can attack innocent bystanders to make a statement; vigilantism does not allow the same action.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Under the author's definition, different cases of vigilantism will aim at different conceptions of justice.

“Under my definition, different cases of vigilantism will aim at different conceptions of justice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Vigilantism should be distinguished from social activism, even if the latter involves civil disobedience.

“Vigilantism should also be distinguished from social activism, even if the latter involves civil disobedience.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Breaking the law to uphold the law is not merely hypocrisy on the vigilante's part, but rather the exercise of power without consideration for the moral or philosophical implications of doing so.

“As such, breaking the law to uphold the law is not merely hypocrisy on the vigilante's part, but rather the exercise of power without consideration for the moral or philosophical implications of doing so.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Even if the terrorist's victims were responsible for the terrorist's alleged suffering, the terrorist is not in a position to know that.

“In fact, even if the terrorist's victims were responsible for the terrorist's alleged suffering, the terrorist is not in a position to know that (Primoratz).”

• cites PrimoratzNot matched

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vigilantism centrally concerns the pursuit of justice.

“## 1.4 Vigilantism centrally concerns the pursuit of justice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

While vigilantes may intend to make political statements and change an overall society, meting out punishment for each individual case has the immediate goal of punishing this one person for this one action.

“Additionally, while vigilantes may intend to make political statements and change an overall society, meting out punishment for each individual case has the immediate goal of punishing this one person for this one action.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Social activism has more in common with terrorism than it does with vigilantism.

“Arguably, social activism has more in common with terrorism than it does with vigilantism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Retribution is sometimes interpreted as vengeance, in that the victim or society needs to witness their oppressor being brought low.

“For example, retribution is sometimes interpreted as vengeance, in that the victim or society needs to witness their oppressor being brought low (Corlett 33).”

• cites Corlett 33Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is extremely unreasonable to label an entire race or group of people as transgressors by virtue of their existence.

“First, it is extremely unreasonable to label an entire race or group of people as transgressors by virtue of their existence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Social activism includes actions such as disobeying laws to provoke state action, gathering peaceful groups in solidarity, using marches or rallies to promote awareness, and even using violent tactics such as smashing windows.

“Social activism includes actions such as disobeying laws to provoke state action, gathering peaceful groups in solidarity, using marches or rallies to promote awareness, and even using violent tactics such as smashing windows.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The type of alleged transgression can vary, from legal, to social, to personal codes.

“The type of alleged transgression can also vary, from legal, to social, to personal codes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Retributive justice is perhaps the popular idea associated with vigilantism, and it appears in several scholarly accounts.

“Retributive justice is perhaps the popular idea associated with vigilantism, and it appears in several scholarly accounts (Abrahams 179), (Brown 93), (Shotland 31).”

• cites Abrahams 179Not matched

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• cites Brown 93Not matched

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• cites Shotland 31Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Vigilantism cannot be enacted against a whole ideology or some vague political entity; it involves punishing Person A for committing Action B.

“Vigilantism cannot be enacted against a whole ideology or some vague political entity; it involves punishing Person A for committing Action B.”

May combine two claims.

The Ku Klux Klan engages in both vigilantism and terrorism.

“For example, the Ku Klux Klan engages in both vigilantism and terrorism.”

• Also stated in: § Vigilantism, Terrorism and Activism · hedged

  “On the one hand, the KKK pursued and punished particular individuals for particular alleged actions (Kreml 62).On the other hand, they also committed violence against black people without provocation, apparently to maintain social superiority over them (Rosenbaum and Sedeberg 13).”

• cites Kreml 62Not matched

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• cites Rosenbaum and Sedeberg 13Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Terrorists target anyone or anything that can bring about some general political or social goal, including destroying private property and public goods.

“Terrorists target anyone or anything that can bring about some general political or social goal.This includes destroying private property, and it also involves destroying public goods, for instance by poisoning water supplies.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Even in future-oriented vigilantism, it concerns a specific Person A appearing to commit or intending to commit Action B.

“Even in the case of future-oriented vigilantism, it concerns a specific Person A appearing to commit or intending to commit Action B.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Both Primoratz and Coady argue that terrorism can be directed against private property as well.

“Both Primoratz and C. J. Coady argue that terrorism can be directed against private property as well (Primoratz 702), (Coady 52).”

• cites Primoratz 702Not matched

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• cites Coady 52Not matched

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Punishment theory focuses around many different conceptions of justice, including retribution, deterrence, restorative justice, and restitution.

“Punishment theory focuses around many different conceptions of justice, including retribution, deterrence, restorative justice, and restitution (Corlett 29).”

• cites Corlett 29Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

There is no reason in principle to restrict vigilante activity to only those cases that serve the established order.

“However, there is no reason in principle to restrict vigilante activity to only those cases that serve the established order.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

If someone attacks all members of a race, gender, orientation or religion without explaining how each individual is guilty of some transgression, this is no longer an act of vigilantism; it is an act of terrorism.

“If someone attacks all members of a race, gender, orientation or religion without explaining how each individual is guilty of some transgression, this is no longer an act of vigilantism; it is an act of terrorism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

While some vigilantes only target members of a certain race or political group, they must justify each attack as a separate, justified punishment.

“While some vigilantes only target members of a certain race or political group, they must justify each attack as a separate, justified punishment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Retributive justice involves using some form of hard treatment in response to the offender's act of wrongdoing.

“Retributive justice involves using some form of hard treatment in response to the offender's act of wrongdoing (Duff,s. 5).”

• cites Duff,s. 5Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Terrorists can assure their followers that any harm caused will result in some greater good, whereas vigilantes would have to justify their actions toward every individual person who is harmed by their actions.

“Similarly, terrorists can assure their followers that any harm caused will result in some greater good, whereas vigilantes would have to justify their actions toward every individual person who is harmed by their actions.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Different scholars offer different conceptions of what is entailed by the concept of justice.

“However, different scholars offer different conceptions of what is entailed by the concept of justice.Punishment theory focuses around many different conceptions of justice, including retribution, deterrence, restorative justice, and restitution (Corlett 29).”

• cites Corlett 29Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Even if someone is acting on a radically new value system or wholly idiosyncratic guidelines, they should still be classified as vigilantes.

“Likewise, even if someone is acting on a radically new value system or wholly idiosyncratic guidelines, they should still be classified as vigilantes.”

May combine two claims.

Some terrorists do claim that everyone is guilty - children, bystanders, people outside of the alleged targeted group - but this argument is completely unreasonable.

“Some terrorists do claim that everyone is guilty -children, bystanders, people outside of the alleged targeted group -but this argument is completely unreasonable (Johnston 230), (Primoratz 700).”

• cites Johnston 230Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Primoratz 700Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Vigilantism is a warped system of law in itself, with its own set of rules and enforcement procedures.

“Rather, it is a warped system of law in itself, with its own set of rules and enforcement procedures.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Schuberth notes that vigilantes target specific wrongdoers and aim to provide security, whereas a terrorist seeks to disrupt society and aims to make a political statement.

“Schuberth notes that vigilantes target specific wrongdoers and aim to provide security, whereas a terrorist seeks to disrupt society and aims to make a political statement (Schuberth 298).”

• cites Schuberth 298Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

It is difficult to find a single common factor among the various codes or systems of value that vigilantes choose to uphold.

“It is difficult to find a single common factor among the various codes or systems of value that vigilantes choose to uphold.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Activism tends not to target specific people for specific actions; rather, it aims at a general political goal.

“Activism tends not to target specific people for specific actions; rather, it aims at a general political goal.”

May combine two claims.

None of the aforementioned activities seem to bear any resemblance to our paradigm cases of vigilantism, and none follow the pattern of targeting Person A for Action B.

“Moreover, none of the aforementioned activities seem to bear any resemblance to our paradigm cases of vigilantism, and none of these activities follow the pattern of targeting Person A for Action B.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Retribution can also be interpreted in a much weaker sense, allowing plea bargains and mercy to factor into proportional punishment.

“It can also be interpreted in a much weaker sense, allowing plea bargains and mercy to factor into proportional punishment (Corlett 36).”

• cites Corlett 36Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

There should be space for differing interpretations of justice in the definition of vigilantism.

“There should be space for these differing interpretations of justice in the definition of vigilantism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Rationality should not be a feature of vigilantism.

“Similarly, I do not want to include rationality or affirmation of some autonomous citizenship as a feature of vigilantism, because doing so would raise new complications.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Vigilantes are not acting randomly, merely out of anger, or from a nihilistic position.

“They are not acting randomly, or merely out of anger, or from a nihilistic position.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Deterrence is a forward-thinking, consequentialist conception of justice, aiming to prevent future crimes.

“Deterrence is a forward-thinking, consequentialist conception of justice, aiming to prevent future crimes (Duff,s. 3).”

• cites Duff,s. 3Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Vigilantism is different from terrorism or social peer pressure.

“For instance, I agree with Johnston that vigilantism concerns private citizens, not state officials, that it can range from lone individuals to mobs, and that it is different from terrorism or social peer pressure.”

• cites Johnston 220Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The vigilante has no reason to make promises of never re-offending, since from their perspective, they never committed any offence.

“The vigilante also has no reason to make promises of never re-offending, since from their perspective, they never committed any offence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A third conception of justice involves restitution rather than hard treatment.

“A third conception of justice involves restitution rather than hard treatment.This line of reasoning often comes from scholars who believe that retributive justice is an improper response (Duff,s. 7).”

• cites Duff,s. 7Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vigilantism can escalate into para-military activity.

“My own definition allows for the fact that vigilantism can escalate into para-military activity, and my definition also focuses on the goal of security rather than political change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some scholars argue that enforced restitution allows the offender to make reparations to the victim.

“Instead, some scholars argue that enforced restitution allows the offender to make reparations to the victim (Duff,s. 7).”

• cites Duff,s. 7Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Domestic abuse occurs in an intimate relationship, and follows a pattern of psychological manipulation and coercive control.

“Domestic abuse occurs in an intimate relationship, and follows a pattern of psychological manipulation and coercive control.Abusers often use a variety of tactics from gaslighting 1 and destroying property, to controlling their victim's money and isolating abuse victims in order to maintain power over them (Carden 546).”

• cites Carden 546Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Requiring rationality leaves out too many cases that would otherwise be vigilantism.

“Yet this seems to leave out too many cases of what would otherwise be vigilantism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Vigilantes truly believe that their own moral principles are enough to justify their actions, even if that means breaking valid laws.

“Instead, vigilantes truly believe that their own moral principles are enough to justify their actions, even if that means breaking valid laws.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Since a vigilante at least claims to be punishing guilty individuals, they have no reason to apologize or make reparations.

“By contrast, since a vigilante at least claims to be punishing guilty individuals, they have no reason to apologize or make reparations.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Vigilantes are unpredictable and not always upholding validly formed laws or using the same tactics or rules.

“Vigilantes are unpredictable, not always upholding the validly formed laws of a society, and not always using the same tactics or rules.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vigilantes can be mistaken or inconsistent about their conception of justice.

“It is also important to note that vigilantes can be mistaken or inconsistent about their conception of justice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The criterion still holds as long as vigilantes claim to be motivated by some form of justice.

“The criterion still holds, as long as vigilantes claim to be motivated by some form of justice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

State officials should not be considered vigilantes.

“There is also nothing in Schuberth's account to exclude state officials, and as discussed earlier, this is a major omission.”

May combine two claims.

The cyclic nature of domestic abuse indicates that the abuser is already aware of this injustice, but continues their abuse for their own satisfaction.

“The cyclic nature of this kind of abuse indicates that the abuser is already aware of this injustice, but continues their abuse for their own satisfaction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Vigilantes assume power they have not been granted, placing themselves in the role of duly appointed state officials.

“Vigilantes assume a power that they have not been granted, placing themselves in the role of duly appointed state officials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It does not matter which conception of justice a vigilante aims to fulfill.

“Ultimately, it does not matter which conception of justice a vigilante aims to fulfill.”

May combine two claims.

Vigilantism can aim at rehabilitation, or restorative justice.

“Vigilantism can even aim at rehabilitation, or restorative justice.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vigilantes choose to follow their moral code over the existing law.

“Vigilantism occupies a strange position between law and morality, precisely because the vigilante chooses to follow their moral code over the existing law.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The crucial point to fulfill this criterion is that the vigilante seeks justice of some kind.

“However, the crucial point to fulfill this criterion is that the vigilante seeks justice of some kind.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Vigilantes challenge the authority of the existing legal system and place themselves above the rest of society as arbiters of justice.

“In this manner, they challenge the authority of the existing legal system, and also place themselves above the rest of society as arbiters of justice.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Laws are valid as long as they meet the conditions for the existence of law in that jurisdiction, regardless of whether these conditions include principles of morality.

“According to this position, laws are valid as long as they meet the conditions for the existence of law in that jurisdiction, regardless of whether these conditions include principles of morality or not (Kramer 2004, 3).”

• cites Kramer 2004, 3 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Vigilantism can occur without violence, such as hacktivism or forcibly redistributing wealth.

“Finally, Rosenbaum and Sedeberg also leave out cases of vigilantism that do not involve violence, such as hactivism or forcibly redistributing wealth.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Hacktivism and forcibly redistributing wealth are instances of vigilantism.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Brown's definition does not adequately cover the variety of cases that fall under vigilantism.

“For these reasons, Brown's definition does not adequately cover the variety of cases that fall under vigilantism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Excessive police brutality, rioting, violent protests, legally mandated discrimination, and coups d'etat should not be considered vigilantism.

“As discussed in earlier sections, none of these activities should be considered vigilantism.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Rosenbaum and Sedeberg's definition of vigilantism is both too inclusive and too narrow.

“Unfortunately, Rosenbaum and Sedeberg's definition is both too inclusive and too narrow.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vigilantism can range from lone individuals to mobs.

“For instance, I agree with Johnston that vigilantism concerns private citizens, not state officials, that it can range from lone individuals to mobs, and that it is different from terrorism or social peer pressure.”

• cites Johnston 220Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

There is a core paradigm of vigilantism that can still be identified.

“However, there is a core paradigm that can still be identified, and engaged with in law and academia.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Restorative justice seeks to heal the relationship between the offender and society, often through mediation or making amends.

“Restorative justice seeks to heal the relationship between the offender and society, often through mediation or making amends (Duff,s. 7).”

• cites Duff,s. 7Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Voluntary consent is difficult to determine.

“A second major issue is that voluntary consent is difficult to determine.”

• cites Wertheimer 275Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Gulabi Gang actively fights against the long-standing patriarchal values in their society.

“These women actively fight against the long-standing patriarchal values in their society.”

• cites White and Rastogi 318Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Gulabi Gang is an instance of vigilantism.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vigilantism concerns private citizens, not state officials.

“For instance, I agree with Johnston that vigilantism concerns private citizens, not state officials, that it can range from lone individuals to mobs, and that it is different from terrorism or social peer pressure.”

• cites Johnston 220Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This conception of justice stems from the idea that the offender deserves hard treatment for the harm that they inflicted upon society.

“This conception of justice stems from the idea that the offender deserves hard treatment for the harm that they inflicted upon society (Duff,s. 5).”

• cites Duff,s. 5Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Vigilantism can be a very dangerous practice.

“For all of these reasons, vigilantism can be a very dangerous practice, and any argument on its moral worth requires a detailed account.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Person B is justified in exercising their own autonomy while holding Person A accountable for their actions.

“Person B is therefore justified in exercising their own autonomy, while also holding someone else accountable for their actions.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vigilantism could have damaging long-term consequences upon the stability of a legal system.

“Perhaps the strongest consequentialist argument against vigilantism is that it could have damaging long-term consequences upon the stability of a legal system.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vigilantes are breaking the democratically agreed-upon laws of a society in some way.

“According to the definition laid out in Chapter One, vigilantes are also breaking the democratically agreed-upon laws of a society in some way.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In theory and in practice, there can be vigilante groups who protect vulnerable minorities without perpetuating other negative social prejudices.

“Nonetheless, in theory and in practice, there can be vigilante groups who protect vulnerable minorities without perpetuating other negative social prejudices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

From the anarchist perspective, Person B has a better moral claim to compel Person A to return the jewelry than a state entity.

“Indeed, from the anarchist perspective, Person B has a better moral claim to compel Person A to return the jewelry than a state entity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Under Simmons' view, vigilantism may not be ideal but seems acceptable.

“For Simmons, vigilantism may not be the ideal course of action, but it seems to be an acceptable course of action nonetheless.”

May combine two claims.

The objection from negative social values may apply to some cases of vigilantism, but vigilantism can still be a useful tool in combating undesirable features of many societies.

“Therefore, the objection from negative social values may apply to some cases of vigilantism, but there remains the possibility that vigilantism can be a useful tool in combating these undesirable features many societies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Our laws reflect the influence of relational autonomy.

“Our laws reflect the influence of relational autonomy as well, for instance, by compelling deadbeat fathers to support their partners and children.”