SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE AMPHIBIAN CHYTRID FUNGUS VARIES WITH ONTOGENY IN THE DIRECT-DEVELOPING FROG,ELEUTHERODACTYLUS COQUI
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Age-related differences in susceptibility to infectious disease are known from a wide variety of plant and animal taxonomic groups. For example, the immature immune systems of young vertebrates, along with limited prior exposure to pathogens and behavioral factors, can place juveniles at greater risk of acquiring and succumbing to a pathogen. We studied the ontogenetic susceptibility of terrestrial direct-developing frogs (Eleutherodactylus coqui) to the fungal pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which is responsible for the decline of amphibian species worldwide. By exposing juvenile and adult frogs to the same dose and strain of Bd, we uncovered ontogenetic differences in susceptibility. Froglets exposed to the pathogen had significantly lower survival rates compared with control froglets, while adult frogs largely cleared infection and had survival rates indistinguishable from control frogs, even when exposed to a much higher dose of Bd. The high disease-induced mortality rate of juveniles may explain ongoing population declines in eastern Puerto Rico, where Bd is endemic and juveniles experience higher prevalence and infection intensity compared to adults. Our results have important implications for understanding and modeling the decline, possibly to extinction, of amphibian populations and species.
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Given ongoing climate change, the elevational range of Batrachochytrium will almost certainly change, as well as its impact on Puerto Rican frogs, especially juveniles.
“Given ongoing climate change, the elevational range of Batrachochytrium will almost certainly change, as well as its impact on Puerto Rican frogs, especially juveniles (80).”
From Climate-driven declines in arthropod abundance restructure a rainforest food web (2018) · cites this paper as [80]
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“However, this high-humidity environment may favour B. dendrobatidis proliferation and habitat-mediated zoospore transmission (Langhammer et al. 2014), explaining the higher B. dendrobatidis prevalence (62”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationEstimation of metademographic rates and landscape connectivity for a conservation-reliant anuran
Duarte, A., Peterson, J. T., Pearl, C. A., Rowe, J. C., McCreary, B., Galvan, S. K., & Adams, M. J. (2020) · Landscape Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10980-020-01030-8 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Parrish, K., Kirkland, P. D., Horwood, P. F., Chessman, B. C., Ruming, S., McGilvray, G., Rose, K. A., Hall, J., & Skerratt, L. F. (2024) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v16040653 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The apparently greater susceptibility of older turtles contrasts with a wide range of plant and animal studies typically finding juveniles more susceptible to disease than adults [37–41].”
BackgroundTick parasitism as a cost of sexual selection and male parental care in a Neotropical frog
Longo, A. V., Rodríguez‐Gómez, C. A., Zegarra, J. P., Monzon, O., Claudio‐Hernández, H. J., Joglar, R. L., Zamudio, K. R., Burrowes, P. A., & López‐Torres, A. L. (2020) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.3010 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationBacigalupe, L. D., Solano‐Iguaran, J. J., Longo, A. V., Gaitán‐Espitía, J. D., Valenzuela‐Sánchez, A., Alvarado‐Rybak, M., & Azat, C. (2024) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.11249 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…coqui , a species with direct development (i.e., sub-adults hatch from eggs), exhibited higher bacterial richness in comparison to adults, which they attributed to the fact that the juve - nile stage is the most susceptible to chytridiomycosis (Langhammer et al., 2014 ; Longo et al., 2010 ).”
BackgroundHartmann, A. M., Sash, K., Hill, E. P., Claunch, N. M., Maddox, M. L., McGrath-Blaser, S. E., McKinstry, C. C., Ossiboff, R. J., & Longo, A. V. (2024) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2024.110685 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Using a Bayesian network to clarify areas requiring research in a host–pathogen system
Bower, D. S., Mengersen, K. L., Alford, R. A., & Schwarzkopf, L. (2017) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.12950 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Ontogeny of immunity and potential implications for co-infection
Ramsay, C. T., & Rohr, J. R. (2023) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2022.0127 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Jervis, P., Sullivan, C., Manzano, A., Rosa, G. M., Tarvin, R. D., Ron, S. R., Vredenburg, V. T., Fisher, M. C., & Merino‐Viteri, A. (2026) · Diversity and Distributions · doi:10.1111/ddi.70187 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Despite the lack of evidence of an epizootic Bd outbreak in Pristimantis spp., some of these species have been shown to be susceptible to chytrid-iomycosis (Mesquita et al. 2017), and show signs of population decline at low Bd prevalence (Langhammer et al. 2014; Longo and Burrowes 2010).”
Emerging infectious disease and the trade in amphibians
Wombwell, E. (2014) · Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Rohonczy, J., Forbes, M. R., Darabaner, J., & Robinson, S. A. (2025) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179441 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Lewis, C. H. R., Mei, Y., Voyles, J., Richards‐Zawacki, C. L., Batista, A., Belden, L. K., Estrada, A., Hertz, A., Hughey, M. C., Medina, D., et al. (2025) · Diversity and Distributions · doi:10.1111/ddi.70052 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Susceptibility to Bd varies widely among amphibian species and life stages (James et al. 2015; Langhammer et al. 2014).”
Defensive coloration is not a reliable indicator of fungal infection in aposematic poison frogs
Justicia, L. S., Dittrich, C., Nokelainen, O., & Rojas, B. (2025) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/araf137 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“These patterns may reflect differing life history strategies or energy allocation trade-offs between sexes, which could contribute to the observed differences in infection dynamics between males and females (Longo and Burrowes 2010; Langhammer et al. 2014).”
Marschang, R. E., & Gandar, F. (2015) · Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery · doi:10.5818/1529-9651-25.3.65
Smith, D. (2019) · University of Salford Institutional Repository (University of Salford)
Marschang, R. E. (2015) · Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery · doi:10.5818/1529-9651-25.1.6
Guinto, D., Hernández-Poveda, M., Aquilina, A., Davidson, M. J., Skerratt, L. F., Kosch, T. A., & Berger, L. (2025) · Diseases of Aquatic Organisms · doi:10.3354/dao03889
Little Overlap in Symbiotic Bacteria of Coquí Frogs in Hawaii and Puerto Rico
Weitzman, C. L., Day, K. A., Gorman, K. M., Gibb, K. S., Brown, G. P., & Christian, K. A. (2026) · Biotropica · doi:10.1111/btp.70156
“…to Bd is especially high during the dry season and during the juvenile life stage, while adults are generally able to clear infections thanks, in part, to protection provided by their skin bacteria (Longo and Burrowes 2010; Longo et al. 2010; Langhammer et al. 2014; Rebollar et al. 2020).”
¿Cómo las ranitas coquí jóvenes equilibran las demandas de crecimiento y de combatir enfermedades?
Colón-Piñeiro, Z., Longo, A. V., Acevedo, M. A., & Martin, N. W. (2026) · doi:10.64628/aai.rjmgttkmn
How young coquí frogs balance the competing demands of growth and fighting disease
Colón-Piñeiro, Z., Longo, A. V., Acevedo, M. A., & Martin, N. W. (2026) · doi:10.64628/aai.fqm4fq49u
Torres‐Sánchez, M., & Glen, C. G. (2026) · Evolutionary Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10682-026-10414-2
“An understanding of age structure (e.g., E. coqui presents ontogenetic differences in B. dendrobatidis susceptibility, Langhammer et al. 2014 ) and population dynamics (e.g., potential selective disappearance of frogs with shorter telomeres in the wet forest) could provide valuable insights about…”
Hammond, T. T., Swaisgood, R. R., Curtis, M. J., & Shier, D. M. (2026) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2026.e04440
- Authors
- Langhammer, P. F., Burrowes, P. A., Lips, K. R., Bryant, A. B., & Collins, J. P.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- University of Puerto Rico System (PR)
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Corresponding author
- Langhammer, Penny F.
- Venue
- Journal of Wildlife Diseases
- Publisher
- Wildlife Disease Association
- Published
- 2014-07
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 438-446
- ISSN
- 0090-3558 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2087088126
- Cited by
- 52
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 4.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Wildlife Diseases (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BioOne Complete (BioOne) (submittedVersion)
- Arizona State University Library Digital Repository (Arizona State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
- Arizona State University
- Philanthropic Educational Organization
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Amphibian and Reptile Biology
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Bat Biology and Ecology Studies
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Infectious Diseases and Mycology
- Keywords
- Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Eleutherodactylus coqui, ontogeny, disease susceptibility, direct-developing frogs, amphibian decline, juvenile mortality, infection clearance, amphibian extinction
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Anura, Disease Susceptibility, Chytridiomycota, Mycoses
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