Literary Powerhouse from the Social Margins

May combine two claims.

The illicit wealth gained in this way did not become productive capital; it was more often spent on luxurious living and lavish cultural displays.

“The illicit wealth amassed this way did not develop into meaningful capital that could be invested in further production .It was more likely to be squandered on a sumptuous lifestyle and luxurious cultural spectacles .74”

• cites [74]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Chosŏn printing was heavily influenced by contemporary Chinese printing, and Korean printers imitated Chinese typographic features, spreading wooden moveable type especially in private printing.

“In particular, Chosŏn printing culture in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was heavily influenced by contemporary Chinese printing.”

• Also stated in: § technological dePendency · plain

  “Korean printers imitated their typographic characteristics, and wooden moveable type began to spread, particularly in the private printing sector .81”

• cites [81]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

After Ch'ŏn Sugyŏng took charge, the society held poetry contests twice a year, in spring and fall, so that people unable to attend regular meetings could participate.

“After Ch'ŏn Sugyŏng took over, the society held biannual poetry composition contests in spring and fall to accommodate all people who could not join the regular meetings .”

May combine two claims.

King Chŏngjo's readiness to appoint chungin scholars to court posts requiring literary skill increased their fame and improved their access to cultural resources.

“Moreover, King Chŏngjo's willingness to hire chungin scholars for court positions requiring literary skills not only heightened their fame as writers but also enhanced their access to cultural resources .71”

• cites [71]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Many clerks shared their profits with yangban patrons, so political patronage of nonelite subordinates was repaid through economic benefits.

“Many clerks shared profits with their yangban patrons, 73 so the bureaucrats' political patronization of their nonelite subordinates was repaid in the form of economic benefits.”

• cites [73]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Petty clerks in government offices became newly wealthy in the mid-eighteenth century, accumulating wealth especially through bribes from people seeking favorable administrative treatment.

“The petty clerks in government offices emerged as the nouveau riche in the mid-eighteenth century .”

• Also stated in: § comPlicity in Politico-economic fieldS · plain

  “They accumulated remarkable wealth particularly through taking bribes from those who wanted to facilitate administrative processes in their favor .”

May combine two claims.

The contests were called 'white wars' because they admitted poets regardless of social status and the competition was purely literary.

“Because they welcomed poets irrespective of their social status, these contests were called”

• Also stated in: § chungin aS connectorS · plain

  “which meant war fought without weapons, as the poets competed only with their literary talents .”

May combine two claims.

Close ties to illustrious elite families were common among these chungin men, and famous scholar-officials often wrote prefaces or postscripts for chungin publications.

“Close ties with illustrious elite families were thus not uncommon .”

• Also stated in: § comPlicity in Politico-economic fieldS · plain

  “Based upon this kind of connection, famed scholar-officials frequently wrote prefaces or postscripts for chungin publications .70”

• cites [70]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Chungin printers often supervised the editing of the books they printed, and Chang Hon edited royal-sponsored books and Confucian classics that were classified as outstanding editions; his skills were widely praised, so he handled most printing jobs in his office.

“Besides honing their expertise in printing techniques, chungin printers frequently oversaw the editing of the titles they printed .83”

• cites [83]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [85]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Chungin technical clerks traced their descent from elite clans, whereas petty clerks mostly came from commoners and even slaves.

“Whereas chungin technical clerks genealogically diverged from the elite clans, the petty clerks mostly came from among the commoners and even slaves .66”

• cites [66]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Office of Editorial Review had been one of the few government bureaus staffed solely by chungin clerks from the dynasty's early years, and the Office of the Supervision of Printing, established in 1790, was also assigned to chungin clerks.

“From the early years of the dynasty, the Office of Editorial Review (Kyosŏgwan 校書館) had been one of the few government bureaus run solely by chungin clerks .77”

• Also stated in: § technological dePendency · plain

  “The revitalization of state-led cultural projects during the reign of King Chŏngjo entrenched this bureaucratic segregation even more by assigning chungin clerks to run the Office of the Supervision of Printing (Kaminso 鑑印所), newly established in 1790.”

• cites [77]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Chang Hon became a key printer in Seoul literary circles and possessed his own wooden moveable type.

“In this period, Chang Hon emerged as a key printer in the circle of Seoul literati, with his own wooden moveable type (Iiŏm cha 而已广字) .82”

• cites [82]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

After Ch'ŏn Sugyŏng died in 1818, the Songsŏgwŏn gradually fell apart; later chungin poets formed similar societies in the mid-nineteenth century, but these no longer received elite support or national attention.

“After the death of Ch'ŏn Sugyŏng in 1818, the Songsŏgwŏn gradually crumbled.”

• Also stated in: § technological dePendency · plain

  “Later chungin poets established similar poetry societies modeled after it during the mid-nineteenth century; however, they no longer garnered support from the elites, let alone elicited national attention .103”

• cites [103]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Continued Selection of Folk Songs, compiled by core Songsŏgwŏn members, contained 723 poems by 333 chungin poets after 1737 and used the moveable type of the Office of the Supervision of Printing; it is one of few private publication projects with a written record of such usage.

“Intended to preserve and disseminate the literary oeuvre by chungin poets, it contained 723 poems composed by 333 chungin poets after 1737 .”

• Also stated in: § technological dePendency · plain

  “Apart from the expanded coverage, this collection is also notable in that the moveable type of the Office of the Supervision of Printing was used for its publication .It is one of a few private publication projects for which there is a written record of such usage .86”

• cites [86]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Printing experts such as Chang Hon became the most sought-after chungin printers; he carved his own wooden moveable type, privately published many titles, and his type was still used after his death in 1828.

“Printing experts like Chang Hon emerged as the most in-demand chungin printers .”

• Also stated in: § technological dePendency · plain

  “Besides working in the Office of the Supervision of Printing, Chang carved his own wooden moveable type with which he privately published numerous titles .95 His type was used even after his death in 1828 .96”

• cites [95]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [96]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Books from commercial private printers were crude because those printers lacked necessary facilities and skilled workers, so most modest yangban elites either expanded their networks or used official rank to access state-owned printing resources.

“The quality of books produced through commercial private printers in this period remained crude due to their lack of necessary facilities and skilled printers .93”

• Also stated in: § technological dePendency · plain

  “In this situation, most yangban elites with modest means either extended their social networks or made use of their official rank to utilize state-owned printing resources.94”

• cites [93]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [94]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

From the eighteenth century, the Chosŏn court sought to regain control over local academies because they had multiplied excessively and encroached on state authority; it decreed in 1714 that unapproved academies be abolished, abolished about 180 academies in 1741, and closed all but forty-seven major academies in 1873.

“Starting in the eighteenth century, however, the Chosŏn court aspired to restore state control over local academies due to their excessive increase and their encroachment on state authority .”

• Also stated in: § technological dePendency · plain

  “The state policy culminated in the closure of all but forty-seven major academies in 1873 .92”

• cites [90]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [91]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [92]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, yangban elites grew increasingly interested in publishing their own works, and private academies served as local printing centers by the mid-eighteenth century.

“During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, yangban elites had become increasingly interested in publishing their own works .”

• Also stated in: § technological dePendency · plain

  “Private academies had met these demands by the mid-eighteenth century as the local centers for private printing .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Educated elites in premodern Korea strove to perfect poetry composition under classical Chinese cultural norms.

“The ability to compose exquisite poems was one of the literary skills that educated elites strove to perfect in premodern Korean society, whose cultural norms were governed by the classical Chinese tradition”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Korean literati were expected to compose and recite flawless poems in private and public settings.

“Korean literati were expected to compose and recite poems in flawless form in both private and public settings”

May combine two claims.

Chosŏn educated male elites developed poetry societies to increase group cohesion while distinguishing themselves from nonelites through literary refinement.

“Educated male elites of the Chosŏn dynasty continued this tradition and developed poetry societies (sisa 詩社) to increase cohesion among the group members while distinguishing themselves from nonelites through a lifestyle saturated with literary refinement”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Chungin poetry societies peaked in popularity in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

“The popularity of chungin poetry societies peaked in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Yangban elites would have worried about these critical voices and been cautious about helping the chungin literary enterprise.

“Yangban elites would have been concerned about these critical voices and wary about helping the chungin literary enterprise prosper”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Literary culture trickled down to nonelites during the late Chosŏn period.

“This literary culture trickled down to nonelites during the late Chosŏn period (1392-1910)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The mismatch between low social status and high literary refinement could have weakened yangban sociopolitical leadership rooted in Confucian classical tradition.

“The incongruity between social status and degree of literary refinement could also have weakened their sociopolitical leadership, which was rooted in the Confucian classical tradition”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Elias showed that nonelites imitated elite culture when they saw upward mobility as possible, but created subversive culture when mobility chances were negligible.

“Elias demonstrates that nonelites imitated elite culture when they perceived that upward social mobility was possible, as when the French bourgeoisie emulated the lifestyle of the nobility; but when the chances for upward social mobility were negligible, as in the case of the German middle-class intelligentsia, nonelites tended to create their own subversive culture”

• cites [8]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Poetry composition and recitation marked cultural distinction and was central to social networking among educated elites throughout premodern Korea.

“The communal composition and recitation of poems, as the marker of cultural distinction, constituted the central activities in the social networking of educated elites throughout premodern Korea”

May combine two claims.

Secondary-status poetry societies developed especially in Seoul, where members held skilled government posts or petty clerkships.

“Poetry societies by secondary status groups particularly developed in the Seoul area, where members worked in government positions requiring special skills such as medicine and interpretation or as petty clerks in diverse offices”

May combine two claims.

Despite the panegyric's admitted dramatization, it shows that all contest participants followed identical composition rules and that talent alone determined honors.

“Even with the acknowledgment of a certain degree of dramatization, this panegyric description shows that all participants had to follow the same rules for poetry composition; talent counted as the only criterion to win honors .”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Yi Kyŏngmin's panegyric account, despite its admitted dramatization, reliably reports that all contest participants followed the same composition rules and that talent alone determined honors.

May combine two claims.

By treating the elite anthology Tongmunsŏn as a benchmark for his own collection, Ko Siŏn appears to have accepted yangban cultural supremacy as natural and internalized that framework.

“By making this work a reference point in evaluating his own collection of chungin poems, Ko appears to have taken the cultural supremacy of yangban elites for granted and internalized this given frame .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The term chungin initially referred to technical experts barred from key government positions.

“The term initially referred to technical experts barred from moving up to key government positions filled by high-ranking officials”

May combine two claims.

These activities sustained chungin men's aspiration for upward mobility and distinguished them from nonelites.

“These activities sustained chungin men's aspiration for upward social mobility and distinguished them from nonelites”

May combine two claims.

Chungin poets' adoption of circular letters arose from their position in structural holes; being between yangban elites and commoners let them draw resources and knowledge from both sides.

“The chungin poets' appropriation of circular letters goes back to their positions in structural holes .Being on the border between yangban elites and commoners allowed them to import whatever resources or knowledge that might improve their sociocultural standing from both sides .”

May combine two claims.

Because the Chosŏn state printing office produced the largest number of titles during Chŏngjo's reign, Chang Hon must have been familiar with various advanced printing technologies.

“Considering that the Chosŏn state printing office produced the largest number of titles during Chŏngjo's reign, 79 he must have been familiar with diverse advanced printing technolo-”

• cites [79]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Bourdieu's field theory holds that society is structured through hierarchically organized fields and that positions taken in different fields shape relations among fields.

“He claims that the social formation is structured through a series of hierarchically organized fields, political, economic, educational, cultural, etc.Although each field is relatively autonomous, the positions that individuals take in different fields determine the structure among fields.”

• cites [76]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Despite vocational limits, chungin groups cultivated literary skills and classical knowledge to maintain lower-bureaucracy positions and exclusive marriage networks.

“Despite the vocational limitation in the central government, these chungin groups continued to cultivate literary skills and classical knowledge in order to perpetuate their positions in the lower bureaucracy and maintain exclusive marriage networks among themselves”

• cites [19]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Circular letters were used by scholars at local Confucian academies from the mid-sixteenth century for academic and political exchange, and by the eighteenth century their use had spread to nonelites because they were effective for mobilizing groups.

“The scholars affiliated with local Confucian academies had widely used them since as early as the mid-sixteenth century as they engaged with one another on diverse topics, both academic and political .60”

• Also stated in: § chungin aS connectorS · plain

  “By the eighteenth century, usage of such letters trickled down to nonelites, due to their effectiveness in mobilizing groups of people .61”

• cites [60]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [61]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Chungin served as an umbrella term for diverse secondary status groups.

“Chungin, however, served as an umbrella term that included diverse secondary status groups”

May combine two claims.

The cultural partnership between yangban and chungin poets relates to the positions each group held in the political and economic fields, while their literary styles operated within broader cultural trends.

“The cultural partnership between the yangban and chungin poets thus pertains to the positions that each group had taken in the political and economic fields, while their literary styles operated within broader cultural trends of the period .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Shared genealogical origins between yangban aristocrats and some chungin groups partly explain their intertwined cultural heritage.

“The genealogical origins shared by yangban aristocrats and some chungin groups partly explain their intertwined cultural heritage”

May combine two claims.

Endorsements by yangban scholar-officials did not weaken yangban authority; such patronizing acts instead reinforced the cultural hierarchy and mirrored the status system more starkly.

“The endorsements written by yangban scholar-officials, in this regard, did not harm their authority at all .To the contrary, such patronizing gestures would entrench the cultural hierarchy, reflecting the social status system in a more egregious manner.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Cooperation between yangban and chungin could occur only when chungin men enacted their cultural inferiority, thereby reaffirming the existing social hierarchy.

“The cultural partnership between yangban and chungin was possible only when chungin men performed their cultural inferiority, which reaffirmed the existing social status system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Eugene Park showed that the late Chosŏn military examination system satisfied the status aspirations of those marginalized from the political center.

“Eugene Park has shown that the military examination system during the late Chosŏn period satisfied the status aspiration of those who were marginalized from the political center”

• cites [14]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The collusive tie between court ministers and petty clerks broke down as direct connection to royal in-laws became the new route to political power.

“The collusive relationship between court ministers and petty clerks fell apart, as direct connection to royal in-laws emerged as the new mechanism for entry into political power .”

May combine two claims.

Petty clerks could help yangban patrons access new wealth and realize literary productions through brokerage, which partly motivated yangban patronage of them.

“Unlike official translators, who sometimes outwitted their yangban superiors in diplomatic settings, petty clerks could help their yangban patrons access new sources of wealth and materialize their literary productions through this brokerage role, which in part motivated the yangban men to patronize them in the Chosŏn bureaucracy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The sociocultural standing of chungin printers rose because yangban elites urgently needed their printing and book-production expertise.

“The sociocultural standing of chungin printers was elevated because yangban elites badly needed their expertise in printing and book production .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Instead of removing social discrimination, the cultural partnership between yangban and chungin separated them from the rest of society and let them dominate limited socioeconomic resources and cultural capital.

“Instead of eliminating social discrimination, the cultural partnership between yangban and chungin set them apart from the rest of the society and allowed them to dominate the limited socioeconomic resources and cultural capital .”

May combine two claims.

According to Sŏ Yugu's Surveys on Publications, seventy-eight academies published 167 titles by 1796, and about eighty percent of those titles were individual scholars' writing collections.

“According to Sŏ Yugu's 徐有榘 (1764-1845) Surveys on Publications (Nup'an'go 鏤板考), seventy-eight academies published 167 titles until 1796 .And about eighty percent of these titles were the writing collections of individual scholars .89”

• cites [89]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Although exact print runs are unknown, the large number of surviving intact copies indicates that the collection was printed in great quantity and circulated widely.

“We do not have exact information about the print runs of this title .Considering the substantial number of intact copies that survive, however, this collection must have been printed in great quantity and widely circulated .87”

• cites [87]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The number of surviving intact copies of a premodern Korean book is a reliable indicator of its original print run and circulation.