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Cited by 5,458Personality Traits and PsychologyPersonality Disorders and PsychopathologyNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 80 of the 81 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

A Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character

Cloninger, C. Robert·1993·Archives of General Psychiatry
DOI 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008
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Abstract

In this study, we describe a psychobiological model of the structure and development of personality that accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. Previous research has confirmed four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable, manifest early in life, and involve preconceptual biases in perceptual memory and habit formation. For the first time, we describe three dimensions of character that mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts. Self-concepts vary according to the extent to which a person identifies the self as (1) an autonomous individual, (2) an integral part of humanity, and (3) an integral part of the universe as a whole. Each aspect of self-concept corresponds to one of three character dimensions called self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence, respectively. We also describe the conceptual background and development of a self-report measure of these dimensions, the Temperament and Character Inventory. Data on 300 individuals from the general population support the reliability and structure of these seven personality dimensions. We discuss the implications for studies of information processing, inheritance, development, diagnosis, and treatment.

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Metadata

Authors
Cloninger, C. R.
Affiliations
Washington University in St. Louis (US)
Corresponding author
Cloninger, C. Robert
ORCID
Cloninger, C. Robert
Venue
Archives of General Psychiatry
Publisher
American Medical Association (AMA)
Published
1993-12-01
Volume
50
Issue
12
Pages
975
ISSN
0003-990X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008
OpenAlex
W1989844817
Cited by
5,458
References
81
Citations by year
2026: 86 · 2025: 104 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 152 · 2022: 178 · 2021: 195 · 2020: 314 · 2019: 210 · 2018: 187 · 2017: 219 · 2016: 246 · 2015: 272 · 2014: 244 · 2013: 283 · 2012: 274
FWCI
57.75
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (5r01aa007982-05, 5r01aa008028-05)
  • National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA07982, AA08028)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (MH 31302)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Keywords
temperament, character, personality structure, personality development, Temperament and Character Inventory, self-concept, self-direction, cooperativeness, self-transcendence, novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, persistence, heritability, psychobiological model, personality assessment
MeSH terms
Character, Humans, Models, Biological, Models, Psychological, Personality Assessment, Personality Disorders, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Temperament, Reproducibility of Results

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