Association of Race and Ethnicity With Prescription of SGLT2 Inhibitors and GLP1 Receptor Agonists Among Patients With Type 2 Diabetes in the Veterans Health Administration System
Open accessAbstract
Importance: Novel therapies for type 2 diabetes can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease progression. The equitability of these agents’ prescription across racial and ethnic groups has not been well-evaluated. Objective: To investigate differences in the prescription of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA) among adult patients with type 2 diabetes by racial and ethnic groups. Design, Setting, and Participants: Cross-sectional analysis of data from the US Veterans Health Administration’s Corporate Data Warehouse. The sample included adult patients with type 2 diabetes and at least 2 primary care clinic visits from January 1, 2019, to December 31, 2020. Exposures: Self-identified race and self-identified ethnicity. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcomes were prevalent SGLT2i or GLP-1 RA prescription, defined as any active prescription during the study period. Results: Among 1 197 914 patients (mean age, 68 years; 96% men; 1% American Indian or Alaska Native, 2% Asian, Native Hawaiian, or Other Pacific Islander, 20% Black or African American, 71% White, and 7% of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity), 10.7% and 7.7% were prescribed an SGLT2i or a GLP-1 RA, respectively. Prescription rates for SGLT2i and GLP-1 RA, respectively, were 11% and 8.4% among American Indian or Alaska Native patients; 11.8% and 8% among Asian, Native Hawaiian, or Other Pacific Islander patients; 8.8% and 6.1% among Black or African American patients; and 11.3% and 8.2% among White patients, respectively. Prescription rates for SGLT2i and GLP-1 RA, respectively, were 11% and 7.1% among Hispanic or Latino patients and 10.7% and 7.8% among non-Hispanic or Latino patients. After accounting for patient- and system-level factors, all racial groups had significantly lower odds of SGLT2i and GLP-1 RA prescription compared with White patients. Black patients had the lowest odds of prescription compared with White patients (adjusted odds ratio, 0.72 [95% CI, 0.71-0.74] for SGLT2i and 0.64 [95% CI, 0.63-0.66] for GLP-1 RA). Patients of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity had significantly lower odds of prescription (0.90 [95% CI, 0.88-0.93] for SGLT2i and 0.88 [95% CI, 0.85-0.91] for GLP-1 RA) compared with non-Hispanic or Latino patients. Conclusions and Relevance: Among patients with type 2 diabetes in the Veterans Health Administration system during 2019 and 2020, prescription rates of SGLT2i and GLP-1 RA medications were low, and individuals of several different racial groups and those of Hispanic ethnicity had statistically significantly lower odds of receiving prescriptions for these medications compared with individuals of White race and non-Hispanic ethnicity. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms underlying these differences in rates of prescribing and the potential relationship with differences in clinical outcomes.
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Black, Hispanic/Latinx, and Asian individuals receive fewer prescriptions for SGLT2i or GLP1ra medications compared to White individuals.
“Compounding this significant underuse, Black, Hispanic/Latinx, and Asian individuals receive fewer prescriptions for these medications compared to White individuals.14–17”
From Disparities in Use of Novel Diabetes Medications by Insurance: A Nationally Representative Cohort Study (2024) · cites this paper as [16]
Recent studies have broadly shown racial and ethnic differences in SGLT2i and GLP1ra prescriptions, with Black, Hispanic/Latinx, and Asian groups receiving these medications at lower rates than White individuals.
“Recent studies have also broadly shown racial and ethnic differences in SGLT2i and GLP1ra prescriptions with Black, Hispanic/Latinx, and Asian groups receiving these medications at lower rates than White individuals.14–17”
From Disparities in Use of Novel Diabetes Medications by Insurance: A Nationally Representative Cohort Study (2024) · cites this paper as [16]
Other studies have demonstrated low rates of SGLT2i and GLP1ra medication use (11.2% and 8%, respectively), even among patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease.
“Consistent with our findings, other studies have demonstrated low rates of SGLT2i and GLP1ra medication use (11.2% and 8%, respectively), even among patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease.12–16,32”
From Disparities in Use of Novel Diabetes Medications by Insurance: A Nationally Representative Cohort Study (2024) · cites this paper as [16]
Previous research has highlighted a pattern of treatment disparities that is consistent across various data sources.
“Previous research has highlighted a pattern of treatment disparities that is consistent across various data sources [12–17].”
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Decoding Obesity Management Medications and the Journey to Informed Treatment Choices for Patients
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Klepser, N., Weber, E. S., Li, L., Fleischmann, K. E., Masharani, U. B., Park, M., Max, W. B., Yeboah, J., Hunink, M. G. M., & Ferket, B. S. (2025) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.16619 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Management of Chronic Coronary Disease
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Auzanneau, M., Seufert, J., Zimny, S., Haak, T., Zeyfang, A., Gölz, S., Hugenberg, I., Pavel, M., Rosenbauer, J., & Holl, R. W. (2024) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.15741 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
UNDERWOOD, P. C., Ruscitti, B., Nguyen, T. H., Magny‐Normilus, C., Wentzell, K., Watts, S. A., & H, D. B. M. P. (2025) · Health Systems & Reform · doi:10.1080/23288604.2025.2503648 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Finerenone Utilization for Chronic Kidney Disease and Diabetes
Lin, W., Schweber, A. B., Xu, Y., Chang, A. R., Farag, Y. M. K., Mukhopadhyay, A., Blecker, S., Horwitz, L. I., Grams, M. E., & Shin, J. (2026) · JACC Advances · doi:10.1016/j.jacadv.2026.102642 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Salahuddin, T., Hebbe, A. L., Daus, M., Essien, U. R., Waldo, S. W., Rodríguez, F., Ho, P. M., Simons, C. E., Gilmartin, H., & Doll, J. A. (2023) · American Heart Journal · doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2023.11.009 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonists and the Deepening Health Equity Divide in America
Spinelli, K. J., & Oakes, A. H. (2025) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171251335507b · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Trends and Disparities in Deaths from Kidney Disease Among Older Adults in the United States
Grobman, B., Bondarchuk, C. P., Mansur, A., & Lu, C. Y. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14144950 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Racial and ethnic disparities related to the Medicare Part D Medication Therapy Management Program
Allen, A., & Hung, A. (2024) · Journal of Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy · doi:10.18553/jmcp.2024.30.6.609 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Access to GLP-1s: Where Do Employers Fit in?
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Zhang, J., Spall, H. G. C. V., Li, L., Khan, M. S., Pandey, A., Thabane, L., Bai, X., Wang, Y., Lip, G. Y. H., & Li, G. (2023) · Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome Clinical Research & Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2023.102804 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Shannon, E. M., Steers, W. N., & Washington, D. L. (2023) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.14260 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Berg, K. A., Bharmal, N. H., Tereshchenko, L. G., Le, P., Payne, J. Y., Misra‐Hebert, A. D., & Rothberg, M. B. (2024) · Primary care diabetes · doi:10.1016/j.pcd.2024.02.004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Aroda, V. R., & Billings, L. K. (2023) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2023.06.005 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Another Win for SGLT2 Inhibitors in Chronic Kidney Disease
Leaf, D. E., & Bansal, N. (2025) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejme2500233 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Evidence-based SGLT2 inhibitor and GLP-1 receptor agonist use by race in the VA healthcare system
Bolden, D. M., Richardson, V., Salahuddin, T., Henderson, K., Hess, P. L., Raghavan, S., Saxon, D. R., Ho, P. M., Waldo, S. W., & Schwartz, G. G. (2025) · American Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ajpc.2025.100966 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Steiger, K. G., SWARNA, K. S., Herrin, J. S., & McCoy, R. G. (2025) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-025-09784-0 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Müller, F., Bouthillier, M. J., Alshaarawy, O., Azhary, H., & Holman, H. T. (2025) · Journal of Diabetes Research · doi:10.1155/jdr/6656982 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Racial and demographic disparities in glp-1ra use among breast cancer patients with Type 2 Diabetes
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Flattening the Playing Field for Treatment of Diabetic Kidney Disease
Norris, K. C., Williams, S. F., & Nee, R. (2023) · Seminars in Nephrology · doi:10.1016/j.semnephrol.2023.151428 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Use of Antihyperglycemic Medications Among US People with Limited English Proficiency
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Population Health Management for Improving Kidney Health Outcomes
Jhamb, M., Schell, J. O., Weltman, M. R., Lavenburg, L.-M. U., Puttarajappa, C. M., Fischer, G. S., & Kleyman, T. R. (2025) · American Journal of Kidney Diseases · doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2025.01.020 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Petrosyan, R., Caballero, A. E., Henry, T. L., & Puchalski, A. R. (2025) · The Nephron journals/Nephron journals · doi:10.1159/000548904 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Decker, S. R. D. R., Chaudhary, R. S., Inoue, K., Song, Y., Ndumele, C. E., Khan, S. S., & Kazi, D. S. (2025) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc25-1619 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Tailoring interventions to close gaps in diabetes mellitus care
Diaz-Thomas, A. M., Cabrera, S. M., Pereira, R. I., & Iyer, P. (2026) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/s41574-025-01217-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Relationship between health system quality and racial and ethnic equity in diabetes care
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Ananthesh, L., Cutinha, R. M., & Basutkar, R. S. (2025) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02410-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Yun, S., Hurren, K. M., Holleman, R. G., Klamerus, M. L., Tremblay, A. S., & Sussman, J. B. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4025186/v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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Ostrominski, J. W., Aroda, V. R., Braae, U. C., Kruse, C., Mandavya, K., & Buse, J. B. (2025) · Diabetes Therapy · doi:10.1007/s13300-025-01751-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Native Americans and Alaska Natives: A Systematic Review
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GLP-1RA Dispensing in Youth With Type 2 Diabetes: 2020 to 2023
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Association of GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Use With Chronic Kidney Disease Risk in Type 2 Diabetes
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Prescribing Trajectories in Type 2 Diabetes in the United States, 2019–2024
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The Vexing Problem of Persistent Disparities in Kidney Transplant Care
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- Authors
- Lamprea-Montealegre, J. A., Madden, E., Tummalapalli, S. L., Peralta, C., Neilands, T. B., Garcia, P. K., Muiru, A., Karliner, L., Shlipak, M. G., & Estrella, M. M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana School of Medicine, Bogotá, Colombia
- Corresponding author
- Lamprea-Montealegre, Julio A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- JAMA
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2022-09-06
- Volume
- 328
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 861
- ISSN
- 0002-9955 (ISSN-L)
- 0098-7484
- PMC
- PMC9449794
- OpenAlex
- W4294771462
- Cited by
- 129
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 20.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- JAMA (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Repositorio Institucional (Pontificia Universidad Javeriana) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (K24AG067003, P30AG015272)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (K99HL157721)
- National Institute of Mental Health (P30MH062246)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (K23DK119562)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Treatment and Management
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
- Keywords
- type 2 diabetes, SGLT2 inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonists, racial disparities, ethnic disparities, prescription rates, veterans, health equity, Black veterans, Hispanic veterans, veterans' health care access, primary care visits, veterans' health care utilization, veterans' health care costs
- MeSH terms
- Health Equity, Sodium-Glucose Transporter 2 Inhibitors, Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists, Adult, Aged, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Hypoglycemic Agents, Male, Practice Patterns, Physicians', Professional Practice, United States, Racial Groups, Healthcare Disparities, Prescriptions, Veterans Health
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