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Homicide and Suicide Rates Associated With Implementation of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act
Abstract
CONTEXT: In February 1994, the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act established a nationwide requirement that licensed firearms dealers observe a waiting period and initiate a background check for handgun sales. The effects of this act have not been analyzed. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether implementation of the Brady Act was associated with reductions in homicide and suicide rates. DESIGN AND SETTING: Analysis of vital statistics data in the United States for 1985 through 1997 from the National Center for Health Statistics. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Total and firearm homicide and suicide rates per 100,000 adults (>/=21 years and >/=55 years) and proportion of homicides and suicides resulting from firearms were calculated by state and year. Controlling for population age, race, poverty and income levels, urban residence, and alcohol consumption, the 32 "treatment" states directly affected by the Brady Act requirements were compared with the 18 "control" states and the District of Columbia, which had equivalent legislation already in place. RESULTS: Changes in rates of homicide and suicide for treatment and control states were not significantly different, except for firearm suicides among persons aged 55 years or older (-0.92 per 100,000; 95% confidence interval [CI], -1.43 to -0.42). This reduction in suicides for persons aged 55 years or older was much stronger in states that had instituted both waiting periods and background checks (-1.03 per 100,000; 95% CI, -1.58 to -0.47) than in states that only changed background check requirements (-0.17 per 100,000; 95% CI, -1.09 to 0.75). CONCLUSIONS: Based on the assumption that the greatest reductions in fatal violence would be within states that were required to institute waiting periods and background checks, implementation of the Brady Act appears to have been associated with reductions in the firearm suicide rate for persons aged 55 years or older but not with reductions in homicide rates or overall suicide rates. However, the pattern of implementation of the Brady Act does not permit a reliable analysis of a potential effect of reductions in the flow of guns from treatment-state gun dealers into secondary markets. JAMA. 2000;284:585-591
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“Ludwig and Cooke observed that in the years following implementation of the legislation there was a significantly greater reduction suicides with a handgun by people over the age of 55 years in those states that newly implemented background checks and waiting periods for gun purchase than states in which no changes in procedures were necessary (67).”
From Suicide in older adults (2011) · cites this paper as [67]
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BackgroundImpact of Firearm Availability and Gun Regulation on State Suicide Rates
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BETTER GUN ENFORCEMENT, LESS CRIME*
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“My evaluation with Philip Cook of the Brady Act suggests that the shift from “lie and buy” to (perhaps imperfect) background checks seems to have had no detectable effect on gun crime in the states that were forced to change dealer practices as a result of the law (Ludwig and Cook, 2000).”
Self-citationState Firearm Legislation and Nonfatal Firearm Injuries
Simonetti, J. A., Rowhani‐Rahbar, A., Mills, B. M., Young, B. A., & Rivara, F. P. (2015) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2015.302617 · Cited by 43
State background checks and firearms homicides
Ruddell, R., & Mays, G. L. (2005) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.12.004 · Cited by 42
Mocan, N. H., & Tekin, E. (2006) · The Journal of Law and Economics · doi:10.1086/508330 · Cited by 41
“Ludwig and Cook (2000) find no evidence that implementation of the Brady Act was associated with a reduction in homicide rates, and Lott and Whitley (2001) find no evidence that safe-storage gun laws reduce the number of juvenile accidental gun deaths or suicides and that the passage of such laws…”
BackgroundNoisy Retrospection: The Effect of Party Control on Policy Outcomes
Dynes, A. M., & Holbein, J. B. (2019) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055419000649 · Cited by 42
Responding to the Crisis of Firearm Violence in the United States
Wintemute, G. J. (2013) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.1292 · Cited by 40
Mental Health and Firearms in Community-Based Surveys
Sorenson, S. B., & Vittes, K. A. (2008) · Evaluation Review · doi:10.1177/0193841x08315871 · Cited by 40
“If gun owners have lower impulse control and if impulse control is transmitted genetically or through the social environmental, then it may also explain the higher suicide rates among those who reside with firearm owners but do not own a gun themselves.”
Firearm Suicides in the Elderly: A Narrative Review and Call for Action
Price, J. H., & Khubchandani, J. (2021) · Journal of Community Health · doi:10.1007/s10900-021-00964-7 · Cited by 41
Christoffel, K. K. (2005) · PubMed Central · Cited by 40
The Impact of Mass Shootings on Gun PolicyPreprint
Luca, M., Malhotra, D. K., & Poliquin, C. W. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2776657 · Cited by 40
Restriction of access to methods of suicide as a means of suicide prevention
Hawton, K. (2005) · Prevention and Treatment of Suicidal Behaviour: · doi:10.1093/med/9780198529767.003.0016 · Cited by 39
Balestra, S. (2018) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2018.08.003 · Cited by 41
Gius, M. P. (2015) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2015.01.003 · Cited by 39
“…(Lott Whitley, 2001; Leenaars & Lester, 1997; Lester, 1993; ester & Murrell, 1981) and on suicides (Gius, 2011; Conner Zhong, 2003; Marvell, 2001; Ludwig & Cook, 2000; ummings, Koepsell, Grossman, Savarino, & Thompson, 997; Carrington & Moyer, 1994; Kellerman et al., 1992; ang & Lester, 1991;…”
BackgroundSuicide among Discharged Psychiatric Inpatients in the Department of Veterans Affairs
Desai, R. A., Dausey, D. J., & Rosenheck, R. A. (2008) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed.173.8.721 · Cited by 39
Cook, P. J. (2020) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12519 · Cited by 37
“And by one estimate, 70 residents leave for every homicide in a neighborhood (Cook & Ludwig, 2000).”
InfluentialCharacterization of the gunshot suicides
Balcı, Y., Canoğullari, G., & Ulupınar, E. (2007) · Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jcfm.2006.06.025 · Cited by 36
Park, S., Ahn, M. H., Lee, A., & Hong, J. P. (2014) · International Journal of Mental Health Systems · doi:10.1186/1752-4458-8-22 · Cited by 37
“Increased waiting period for the obtainment of handgun reduced suicide by firearm use among American adults over the age of 55 [26].”
BackgroundCastillo‐Carniglia, Á., Kagawa, R. M. C., Cerdá, M., Crifasi, C. K., Vernick, J. S., Webster, D. W., & Wintemute, G. J. (2018) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2018.10.001 · Cited by 35
Effect of mass shootings on gun sales—A 20-year perspective
Callcut, R. A., Robles, A. M., Kornblith, L. Z., Plevin, R. E., & Mell, M. W. (2019) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/ta.0000000000002399 · Cited by 34
Firearm Availability and Violent Death: The Need for a Culture Change in Attitudes toward Guns
Stroebe, W. (2015) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.12100 · Cited by 34
“Given these loopholes, it is not surprising that the results of evaluations of the effectiveness of gun control measures have not been very encouraging (e.g., Kleck & Patterson, 1993; Kwon, Scott, Safranski, & Bae, 1997; Ludwig & Cook, 2000).”
Conner, K. R., & Goldston, D. B. (2006) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2006.07.002 · Cited by 32
The re‐emerging suicide crisis in the U.S.: Patterns, causes and solutions
Marcotte, D. E., & Hansen, B. (2023) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.22526 · Cited by 38
Improving evaluation of anti-crime programs: Summary of a National Research Council report★
Lipsey, M., Petrie, C., Weisburd, D., & Gottfredson, D. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-006-9009-6 · Cited by 33
“Ludwig and Cook (2000) , for instance, evaluated the impact of the 1994 Brady act by comparing homicide and suicide rates from 1985 to 1997 in 32 states directly affected by the act with those in 19 states that had equivalent legislation already in place.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Ludwig, J.
- Affiliations
- Georgetown University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ludwig, Jens
- ORCID
- Ludwig, Jens
- Venue
- JAMA
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2000-08-02
- Volume
- 284
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 585
- ISSN
- 0002-9955 (ISSN-L)
- 0098-7484
- OpenAlex
- W2155368426
- Cited by
- 287
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 11.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- JAMA (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Keywords
- firearm homicide, firearm suicide, waiting period, background checks, firearms dealers, gun control legislation, older adults, state comparison
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Commerce, Firearms, Homicide, Humans, Middle Aged, Suicide, United States, Violence
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