Environmental gradients drive convergence in life history strategies among disparate but coevolved taxonomic groups
Open accessAbstract
Trait-based approaches can improve ecological understanding by linking fitness to the environment. The trilateral life history model is an expansion of r- and K-selection theory that reflects trade-offs between juvenile survival, fecundity, and generation time and describes differential survival of species across environmental gradients. We used this framework to generate and test hypotheses regarding community assembly and the validity of such a model in two disparate taxonomic groups, freshwater mussels and fish. We assessed the distribution of mussel and fish life history strategies across 80 sites spanning aspects of the river continuum concept within the Ouachita Highlands (USA) and asked if their distributions are predicted by a similar life history strategy framework. Because mussel and fish assemblages should both be structured by selective forces in an up- to downstream trajectory, we expected both taxa to converge on more species-rich assemblages with a greater proportion of equilibrium strategists in larger, more stable downstream habitats. We found that both mussel and fish species richness increased with watershed area as well as the proportion of equilibrium strategists in the assemblages. Our study validates the use of the trilateral life history model to test hypotheses about the distribution patterns of two coevolved taxonomic groups.
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Claims the paper makes
2 of 26 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Fish assemblage structure can influence mussel assemblage structure and abundance.
“Because of this host-parasite relationship, fish assemblage structure can influence mussel assemblage structure and abundance (Schwalb et al., 2013;Vaughn & Taylor, 2000;Watters, 1992).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
The number of fish species in a watershed or at the site scale predicts mussel species richness.
“Indeed, previous work has found that the number of fish species in a watershed or at the site scale predicts mussel species richness (Dascher et al., 2018;Schwalb et al., 2013;Vaughn & Taylor, 2000;Watters, 1992).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Dascher et al., 2018 source
- cites Schwalb et al., 2013 source
The Results (page not available in our copy) show that host-fish presence explained variation in mussel species composition across watersheds. The Introduction reports that fish richness was an important factor in a previous study of mussel community structure. Neither passage establishes that the number of fish species predicts mussel species richness at the watershed or site scale. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Vaughn & Taylor, 2000 source
- Findingown data
The proportion of the fish assemblage composed of equilibrium species increased with watershed area.
“Similarly, the proportion of the fish assemblage composed of equilibrium species increased with watershed area (Figure 2D; R 2 = 0.10, F 1,80 = 10.47,p = 0.0013, y = 0.052x + 0. 37).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“We found that both mussel and fish species richness increased with watershed area as well as the proportion of equilibrium strategists in the assemblages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The trilateral life history model's three strategies are exhaustive and mutually exclusive for both mussels and fish.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
Stream slope was an important factor impacting mussel assemblage composition.
“Our joint plot analysis indicated that watershed area was an important contributing factor for both mussel and fish assemblages (r 2 = 0.49, p < 0.001, r 2 = 0.16, p = 0.004) and stream slope was also an important factor impacting mussel assemblage composition (r 2 = 0.23, p = 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
NMDS analysis revealed structuring of mussel assemblages by Strahler stream order.
“Our NMDS analysis revealed some structuring of mussel (Appendix S1: Figure S2A) and fish (Appendix S1: Figure S2B) assemblages by Strahler stream order.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
Watershed area was an important contributing factor for mussel assemblages.
“Our joint plot analysis indicated that watershed area was an important contributing factor for both mussel and fish assemblages (r 2 = 0.49, p < 0.001, r 2 = 0.16, p = 0.004) and stream slope was also an important factor impacting mussel assemblage composition (r 2 = 0.23, p = 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
NMDS analysis revealed structuring of fish assemblages by Strahler stream order.
“Our NMDS analysis revealed some structuring of mussel (Appendix S1: Figure S2A) and fish (Appendix S1: Figure S2B) assemblages by Strahler stream order.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The proportion of the mussel assemblage comprised of equilibrium species increased with watershed area.
“For mussel life history strategies, the proportion of the assemblage comprised of equilibrium species increased with watershed area (Figure 2C; R 2 = 0.10, F 1,90 = 10.84,p = 0.0014, y = 0.000092x + 1.00).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“We found that both mussel and fish species richness increased with watershed area as well as the proportion of equilibrium strategists in the assemblages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The trilateral life history model's three strategies are exhaustive and mutually exclusive for both mussels and fish.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
The proportion of fish species making up the opportunistic life history strategy was not related to watershed area.
“Neither the proportion of the mussel assemblage comprised of opportunistic species (Figure 2G; R 2 = -0.01,F 1,90 = 0.132, p = 0.717) nor the proportion of fish species making up the opportunistic life history strategy was related to watershed area (Figure 2H; R 2 = 0.0006, F 1,80 = 1.05, p = 0.308).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The trilateral life history model's three strategies are exhaustive and mutually exclusive for both mussels and fish.
- Findingown data
The proportion of the mussel assemblage comprised of periodic species declined with watershed area.
“In both mussels (Figure 2E; R 2 = 0.15, F 1,90 = 14.11, p = 0.0003, y = -0.00009x+ 0.47) and fish (Figure 2F; R 2 = 0.042, F 1,80 = 4.54, p = 0.036, y = -0.041x+ 0.47), the proportion of the assemblage comprised of periodic species declined with watershed area.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“Further, we observed a lower proportional abundance of periodic species in downstream reaches in both taxonomic groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The trilateral life history model's three strategies are exhaustive and mutually exclusive for both mussels and fish.
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
- Findingreasoning
The distribution of life history strategies was similar in both mussels and fish despite the greater mobility of fish.
“However, the distribution of strategies was similar in both groups despite the greater mobility of fish.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The temporal difference in mussel and fish sampling does not confound comparisons of assemblage composition.
- Rests on an assumption: Fish and mussel assemblages at a site are structured primarily by the same environmental gradients, such as stream size and disturbance, rather than by unmeasured factors.
- Findingown data
Watershed area was an important contributing factor for fish assemblages.
“Our joint plot analysis indicated that watershed area was an important contributing factor for both mussel and fish assemblages (r 2 = 0.49, p < 0.001, r 2 = 0.16, p = 0.004) and stream slope was also an important factor impacting mussel assemblage composition (r 2 = 0.23, p = 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Mussel species richness increased with watershed area.
“Mussel species richness increased with watershed area (Figure 2A; R 2 = 0.46, F 1,90 = 77.7,p < 0.00001, y = 0.003x + 7.8).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“We found that both mussel and fish species richness increased with watershed area as well as the proportion of equilibrium strategists in the assemblages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
The proportion of the mussel assemblage comprised of opportunistic species was not related to watershed area.
“Neither the proportion of the mussel assemblage comprised of opportunistic species (Figure 2G; R 2 = -0.01,F 1,90 = 0.132, p = 0.717) nor the proportion of fish species making up the opportunistic life history strategy was related to watershed area (Figure 2H; R 2 = 0.0006, F 1,80 = 1.05, p = 0.308).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The trilateral life history model's three strategies are exhaustive and mutually exclusive for both mussels and fish.
- Findingown data
Fish species richness increased with watershed area.
“Generally, fish species richness increased with watershed area (Figure 2B; R 2 = 0.13, F 1,80 = 13.0,p = 0.0005, y = 1.0x + 6.76).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“We found that both mussel and fish species richness increased with watershed area as well as the proportion of equilibrium strategists in the assemblages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
The proportion of the fish assemblage comprised of periodic species declined with watershed area.
“In both mussels (Figure 2E; R 2 = 0.15, F 1,90 = 14.11, p = 0.0003, y = -0.00009x+ 0.47) and fish (Figure 2F; R 2 = 0.042, F 1,80 = 4.54, p = 0.036, y = -0.041x+ 0.47), the proportion of the assemblage comprised of periodic species declined with watershed area.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“Further, we observed a lower proportional abundance of periodic species in downstream reaches in both taxonomic groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The trilateral life history model's three strategies are exhaustive and mutually exclusive for both mussels and fish.
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
- Interpretationreasoning
Periodic species are more apt to make up a larger proportion of the community in areas that tend to have higher disturbance.
“Smaller streams are generally temporally more unstable than downstream reaches as they experience frequent disturbance from drought, floods, and oxygen stress; thus, periodic species are more apt to make up a larger proportion of the community in areas that tend to have higher disturbance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Smaller streams are generally temporally more unstable than downstream reaches as they experience frequent disturbance from drought, floods, and oxygen stress.
“Smaller streams are generally temporally more unstable than downstream reaches as they experience frequent disturbance from drought, floods, and oxygen stress; thus, periodic species are more apt to make up a larger proportion of the community in areas that tend to have higher disturbance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Mussels have a complex life cycle wherein their larvae are obligate ectoparasites on fish.
“Mussels have a complex life cycle wherein their larvae are obligate ectoparasites on fish (Haag, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Haag, 2012 source
- Premisecitation
Both mussel and fish broad-scale distributions and richness are constrained by large macroscale processes, i.e., historical contingencies.
“Both taxonomic groups are constrained in their broad-scale distributions and richness by large macroscale processes (i.e., historical contingencies; Haag, 2012;Hocutt & Wiley, 1986), thus asking how watershed size as a proxy for disturbance shapes patterns of richness and trait composition is most appropriate at a regional scale (Matthews & Marsh-Matthews, 2017;Poff, 1997).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Haag, 2012 source
- cites Hocutt & Wiley, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Fish assemblage structure plays a substantial role in determining mussel assemblage composition.
“Thus, fish assemblage structure plays a substantial role in determining mussel assemblage composition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Haag, 2012 source
- Rests on an assumption: The temporal difference in mussel and fish sampling does not confound comparisons of assemblage composition.
- Rests on an assumption: Fish and mussel assemblages at a site are structured primarily by the same environmental gradients, such as stream size and disturbance, rather than by unmeasured factors.
- Premisecitation
Watershed size as a proxy for disturbance is most appropriate at a regional scale for asking how it shapes patterns of richness and trait composition.
“Both taxonomic groups are constrained in their broad-scale distributions and richness by large macroscale processes (i.e., historical contingencies; Haag, 2012;Hocutt & Wiley, 1986), thus asking how watershed size as a proxy for disturbance shapes patterns of richness and trait composition is most appropriate at a regional scale (Matthews & Marsh-Matthews, 2017;Poff, 1997).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationown data
The trilateral life history model is valid for testing hypotheses about the distribution patterns of two coevolved taxonomic groups, mussels and fish.
“Our study validates the use of the trilateral life history model to test hypotheses about the distribution patterns of two coevolved taxonomic groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The sampled sites are representative of the river continuum in the Ouachita Highlands.
- Rests on an assumption: Fish and mussel assemblages at a site are structured primarily by the same environmental gradients, such as stream size and disturbance, rather than by unmeasured factors.
- Interpretationcitation
The concordance in life history strategy distribution between mussels and fish may be because fish are hosts for the larval stage of mussels.
“This concordance may be because fish are hosts for the larval stage of mussels (Haag, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Haag, 2012 source
- Rests on an assumption: Fish and mussel assemblages at a site are structured primarily by the same environmental gradients, such as stream size and disturbance, rather than by unmeasured factors.
- Interpretationcitation
The lack of relationship for opportunistic mussel species may be because the study design primarily focused on mussel assemblages associated with mussel beds typically found in hydrologically stable stream habitats where opportunistic species are rarely found.
“For mussels, this may be because our study design primarily focused on mussel assemblages, which are associated with mussel beds that are typically found in hydrologically stable stream habitats where opportunistic species are rarely found (Haag, 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Haag, 2012 source
- Interpretationown data
The life history composition of fish and mussel assemblages is generally related to watershed area.
“We demonstrated that the life history composition of fish and mussel assemblages is generally related to watershed area, which may assist in predicting assemblage responses to natural and anthropogenic disturbances.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The temporal difference in mussel and fish sampling does not confound comparisons of assemblage composition.
- Rests on an assumption: The sampled sites are representative of the river continuum in the Ouachita Highlands.
- Rests on an assumption: Fish and mussel assemblages at a site are structured primarily by the same environmental gradients, such as stream size and disturbance, rather than by unmeasured factors.
- May combine two claims. 6
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 5
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationLarger rivers promote a larger number of species with different traits and species with traits that are adaptive for those conditions, such as longer-lived species.
“Larger rivers have more predictable flow regimes and greater habitat heterogeneity (Ward, 1998) promoting a larger number of species with different traits and species with traits that are adaptive for those conditions (e.g., longer lived).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ward, 1998 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductcitationMussel species were assigned to the equilibrium, periodic, or opportunistic life history strategy as in Haag (2012).
“Mussel species were assigned to the equilibrium, periodic, or opportunistic life history strategy (Appendix S1: Table S1) as in Haag (2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Haag (2012) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe positive relationship between mussel and fish species richness and watershed area could be due to both greater habitat availability and more stable environments typically associated with larger streams.
“The positive relationship between mussel and fish species richness and watershed area could be due to both greater habitat availability and more stable environments typically associated with larger streams (McHugh et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McHugh et al., 2010 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMussels depend on host fish for dispersal and are only abundant and diverse where fish are abundant and diverse.
“Because mussel adults are sedentary, mussels depend on host fish for dispersal and are only abundant and diverse where fish are abundant and diverse (Haag, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Haag, 2012 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe trilateral life history model reflects trade-offs between juvenile survival, fecundity, and generation time.
“The trilateral life history model reflects trade-offs between juvenile survival, fecundity, and generation time (Figure 1A; Haag, 2012;Winemiller & Rose, 1992) and was originally developed from analysis of life history variation in fishes and later applied to other taxa including mussels (Haag, 2012;Moore et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLarger rivers have more predictable flow regimes and greater habitat heterogeneity.
“Larger rivers have more predictable flow regimes and greater habitat heterogeneity (Ward, 1998) promoting a larger number of species with different traits and species with traits that are adaptive for those conditions (e.g., longer lived).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ward, 1998 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe trilateral life history model was originally developed from analysis of life history variation in fishes and later applied to other taxa including mussels.
“The trilateral life history model reflects trade-offs between juvenile survival, fecundity, and generation time (Figure 1A; Haag, 2012;Winemiller & Rose, 1992) and was originally developed from analysis of life history variation in fishes and later applied to other taxa including mussels (Haag, 2012;Moore et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductcitationFish species were assigned to the equilibrium, periodic, or opportunistic life history strategy as in Winemiller and Rose (1992) and Mims and Olden (2012).
“Fish species were assigned to the equilibrium, periodic, or opportunistic life history strategy (see Appendix S1: Methods and Table S2) as in Winemiller and Rose (1992) and Mims and Olden (2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationEquilibrium species are longer lived and have late maturity and are better adapted to larger rivers.
“That corroborates with a study on freshwater mussels in a different region (i.e., upper Mississippi River basin; Hornbach et al., 2024) as equilibrium species are longer lived and have late maturity and are better adapted to larger rivers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hornbach et al., 2024 source
The paper relies on this without support.
The trilateral life history model's three strategies are exhaustive and mutually exclusive for both mussels and fish.
“Mussel species were assigned to the equilibrium, periodic, or opportunistic life history strategy (Appendix S1: Table S1) as in Haag (2012).”
“Fish species were assigned to the equilibrium, periodic, or opportunistic life history strategy (see Appendix S1: Methods and Table S2) as in Winemiller and Rose (1992) and Mims and Olden (2012).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The temporal difference in mussel and fish sampling does not confound comparisons of assemblage composition.
“We surveyed mussels across 92 sites in the Kiamichi and Little River watersheds of southeastern Oklahoma between 1999 and 2021 (Appendix S1: Figure S1).”
“We sampled 82 sites for fishes in the Kiamichi and Little River watersheds in 2014 and 2015 via seining (Zbinden et al., 2022).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The sampled sites are representative of the river continuum in the Ouachita Highlands.
“Our study area included the Kiamichi and Little River watersheds in the Ouachita Highlands of southeastern Oklahoma, USA (Appendix S1: Figure S1; Vaughn et al., 2023).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Fish and mussel assemblages at a site are structured primarily by the same environmental gradients, such as stream size and disturbance, rather than by unmeasured factors.
“We assessed the distribution of mussel and fish life history strategies across 80 sites spanning aspects of the river continuum concept within the Ouachita Highlands (USA) and asked if their distributions are predicted by a similar life history strategy framework.”
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- Vaughn C. C., 1997, Conservation and Management of Freshwater Mussels II: Initiatives for the Future, Proceedings of an Upper Mississippi River Conservation Committee (UMRCC) symposium, 16–18 October 1995, St. Louis, MO, 157
- Zbinden Z. D., 2022, Fish Communities, Species of Greatest Conservation Need, and Protected Areas in Southeastern Oklahoma, 2014–2016, Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science, 101, 14
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hopper, G. W., Keogh, S. M., Atkinson, C. L., et al. (2026) · Journal of Biogeography · doi:10.1111/jbi.70277
“…a gradient of mussels occupying habitats with high densities of large dams on the negative end of the axis toward mussels occupying habitats with lower densities of large dams on the positive end of the axis. local populations (Atkinson et al. 2025; Farrington et al. 2025; Skorupa et al. 2022).”
Self-citationGao, X., Zhang, T., Li, H., et al. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7206697
Mitchell, Z. A., & Schwalb, A. N. (2026) · Freshwater Biology · doi:10.1111/fwb.70314
- Authors
- Atkinson, C. L., Franzen, A. J., Hopper, G. W., Lopez, J. W., Zbinden, Z. D., & Vaughn, C. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Alabama (US)
- Oklahoma Biological Survey (US)
- Louisiana State University (US)
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science (US)
- Corresponding author
- Atkinson, Carla L.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Ecology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2025-12
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- e70273-e70273
- ISSN
- 0012-9658 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-9170
- OpenAlex
- W4417156412
- Cited by
- 3
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3
- FWCI
- 1.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Ecology (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
- Directorate for Biological Sciences (DEB1457542, DEB2043012, DEB9306687, DEB9870092)
- Nature Conservancy
- National Science Foundation
- U.S. Forest Service
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Aquatic Invertebrate Ecology and Behavior
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Fish Ecology and Management Studies
- Keywords
- r/K selection, life history strategies, environmental gradients, community assembly, freshwater mussels, fish, river continuum, species richness, coevolution, habitat stability, drainage area
- MeSH terms
- Life History Traits, Animals, Biological Evolution, Fishes, Models, Biological, Ecosystem, Rivers, Bivalvia
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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