The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer
Open accessAbstract
A nationwide multiround National Family Health Survey (NFHS) is conducted by the Government of India (GOI), representing sample of households across India. The fifth round of NFHS results has been released for the years 2019 to 2021. The NFHS-5 comprises data of 636 699 households (Women: 724 115; Men: 101 839). This latest survey of NFHS-5 has also provided the data on cervix, breast and oral cancer screening uptake by adults (age group: 30-49) and results are alarming, showing less than 2% of screening participation.1 The screening coverage is extremely low compared to European region where screening coverage for cervical cancer (age group: 30-59) and breast cancer (age group: 45-49) is 40.2% and 68.9%, respectively.2 The GOI has initiated cervix, breast and oral cancer screening, respectively, by visual inspection of cervix with acetic acid, clinical breast examination and thorough examination of oral cavity by oral visual examination using a mouth mirror and a white light for the age group of 30 to 65 once in every 5 years with no cost. These population-based cancer screening programs were started in the year 2016 and are being conducted in nearly 400 districts. The trained health workers are playing an important role in executing these government-run screening programs. The screen positive cases are referred to nearby government health facilities for further evaluation by a health professional. The district hospitals are responsible for the further management of screen positive cases. Several center and state government-funded health schemes are available that assist patients in avoiding financial hardship.3-5 The data on screening uptake for cervix, breast and oral cancers are given for the first time in NFHS-5 series. Based on NFHS-5 data, we estimated the number of people who underwent screening using population for the year 2021 provided by the Indian census.1, 6 The findings are concerning as the number of population covered under screening programs is significantly low. The data suggest that of the total population of 186 015 000 women aged 30 to 49 years, only 3 534 285 (1.9%) women reported to uptake cervix cancer screening test whereas 1 674 135 (0.9%) women reported taking screening test for breast and oral cancers. Similarly, for males, 2 295 540 (1.2%) male population out of the total population of 191 295 000 of the age group 30 to 49 reported to undertake oral cancer screening.1 Since the screening uptake data in NFHS-5 survey is specific for the age group of 30 to 49 years, the information is not available for the 50 years and above age group. However, compared to the age range of 30 to 49 years, screening uptake is reported to be lower for those aged 50 and above.7 The state-wise screening uptake for cervix, breast and oral cancers is presented in Table 1. In India, the reported incidence of cervix, breast and oral cancers is high. As per GLOBOCAN 2020, there are 135 929 new lip and oral cavity cancer cases with the age-standardized incidence rate 9.8 per 100 000 population. Moreover, a total of 178 361 and 123 907 breast and cervix cancer cases were reported in India with the age-standardized incidence rate of 25.8 and 18.0, respectively.8 Furthermore, as per the National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP) India 2020, data from 28 Population-based Cancer Registries (PBCRs) indicate that oral cancer is the leading cancer among males; whereas breast and cervix cancers are predominant cancers in females. For males, oral cancer is reported the highest among tobacco-related cancers in central (45.0%) and western (34.6%) regions of India; whereas for females, central (44.8%) region is leading, followed by eastern (37.0%), southern (33.9%) and western (29.5%) regions.9 The oral cancer incidence in Uttar Pradesh state is high and a report published by the Varanasi PBCR reported oral cancer incidence in males for urban area 22.4 per 100 000 and rural 16.2 per 100 000.10 Even though oral cancer incidence is high in Uttar Pradesh state, the screening uptake for oral cancer is 1%. The current incidence of cervix, breast and oral cancers in India and evidence from NFHS-5 regarding screening uptake point towards the dire need of strengthening the ongoing screening and early detection activities. It is recommended that the policymakers should utilize these data and implement strategic interventions to cover more populations under screening programs and focus on early detection of these preventable cancer cases. The government is taking the necessary steps; however, interventions that improve screening participation are required to reduce the burden of preventable cancers in India. Evidence from the randomized control trials (RCTs) conducted in India show the positive outcome of screening and demonstrates reduced mortality of cervix, breast and oral cancers as a result of simple screening methods as well as a good referral system for diagnosis and effective treatment.7 For cervix, breast and oral cancer
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
NFHS-5 (2019–2021) shows very low screening uptake in India for cervical, breast, and oral cancers among adults aged 30–49, with cervical screening at 1.9% in women and breast/oral screening at 0.9%, and oral screening at 1.2% in men. The authors call for strengthened implementation, awareness, access, referral, and early detection services.
Key findings
- Based on NFHS-5 and 2021 population estimates, cervical cancer screening was reported by 3,534,285 of 186,015,000 women aged 30–49 (1.9%); breast and oral cancer screening were each reported by 1,674,135 women (0.9%); oral cancer screening was reported by 2,295,540 of 191,295,000 men aged 30–49 (1.2%).
- Screening coverage in India was far below the European region, where cervical cancer screening coverage was 40.2% (ages 30–59) and breast cancer screening coverage was 68.9% (ages 45–49).
- GLOBOCAN 2020 data cited in the paper report 135,929 new lip and oral cavity cancer cases (ASIR 9.8 per 100,000), 178,361 breast cancer cases (ASIR 25.8), and 123,907 cervix cancer cases (ASIR 18.0) in India.
- State-wise NFHS-5 data in Table 1 show wide variation, e.g., cervical cancer screening was 9.8% in Tamil Nadu and 0.2% in Assam, Gujarat, and West Bengal; oral cancer screening in Uttar Pradesh was 1% despite high oral cancer incidence reported by the Varanasi PBCR (urban males 22.4 per 100,000; rural 16.2 per 100,000).
Methods
- The paper is a commentary/analysis using NFHS-5 (2019–2021) data on cervix, breast, and oral cancer screening uptake among adults aged 30–49; NFHS-5 comprised 636,699 households (724,115 women; 101,839 men).
- The authors estimated the number screened by applying NFHS-5 screening percentages to 2021 Indian census population projections, and presented national and state-wise uptake by sex in Table 1.
- The findings are contextualized with GLOBOCAN 2020 and National Cancer Registry Programme 2020 incidence data; no primary data collection or formal statistical modeling is described.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: NFHS-5 screening uptake data are specific to ages 30–49, so information is not available for the 50 years and above age group; the paper also notes that screening uptake is reported to be lower for those aged 50 and above compared with ages 30–49.
- Stated in the paper: low participation is attributed to factors including lack of awareness of screening services, lack of easy access, community negligence, and participants’ busy schedules.
- Evident from the text: this is a short commentary using secondary, self-reported survey data and census population projections, without formal statistical testing or adjustment; the estimates therefore depend on self-report and projection assumptions.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
4 of 18 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Findingcitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer
Screening uptake is lower for those aged 50 years and above than for those aged 30-49 years.
“However, compared to the age range of 30 to 49 years, screening uptake is reported to be lower for those aged 50 and above.7”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] source
The discussion of the screening trials and Table 1 report screening methods, sample sizes and mortality outcomes, but not uptake by age. The reference to women aged 50 and above concerns a reduction in breast-cancer mortality, not screening uptake. Searches for uptake and the 30–49 versus 50-and-above comparison found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingcitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer
Of the total 191 295 000 males aged 30-49 years in India, 2 295 540 (1.2%) reported having undergone oral cancer screening.
“Similarly, for males, 2 295 540 (1.2%) male population out of the total population of 191 295 000 of the age group 30 to 49 reported to undertake oral cancer screening.1”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The NFHS-5 self-reported screening uptake figures accurately reflect actual screening participation among Indian adults aged 30-49 years.
- Findingown data§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer
Of the total 186 015 000 women aged 30-49 years in India, 3 534 285 (1.9%) reported having undergone cervical cancer screening.
“The data suggest that of the total population of 186 015 000 women aged 30 to 49 years, only 3 534 285 (1.9%) women reported to uptake cervix cancer screening test whereas 1 674 135 (0.9%) women reported taking screening test for breast and oral cancers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [6]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The NFHS-5 self-reported screening uptake figures accurately reflect actual screening participation among Indian adults aged 30-49 years.
- Findingcitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer
In India, the NFHS-5 (2019-2021) reported that less than 2% of adults aged 30-49 participate in cervix, breast and oral cancer screening.
“This latest survey of NFHS-5 has also provided the data on cervix, breast and oral cancer screening uptake by adults (age group: 30-49) and results are alarming, showing less than 2% of screening participation. 1”
- Also stated in: § The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer · plain
“The findings are concerning as the number of population covered under screening programs is significantly low.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The NFHS-5 self-reported screening uptake figures accurately reflect actual screening participation among Indian adults aged 30-49 years.
- Also stated in: § The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer · plain
- Findingown data§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer
Of the total 186 015 000 women aged 30-49 years in India, 1 674 135 (0.9%) reported having undergone breast and oral cancer screening.
“The data suggest that of the total population of 186 015 000 women aged 30 to 49 years, only 3 534 285 (1.9%) women reported to uptake cervix cancer screening test whereas 1 674 135 (0.9%) women reported taking screening test for breast and oral cancers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [6]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The NFHS-5 self-reported screening uptake figures accurately reflect actual screening participation among Indian adults aged 30-49 years.
- Interpretationcitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancer
Screening coverage in India is extremely low compared with the European region.
“The screening coverage is extremely low compared to European region where screening coverage for cervical cancer (age group: 30-59) and breast cancer (age group: 45-49) is 40.2% and 68.9%, respectively.2”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 11
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 9
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerClinical breast examination is recommended by both a breast cancer screening study in the Indian population and the Indian government's screening guidelines.
“The clinical breast examination is recommended by both a breast cancer screening study in the Indian population as well as the Indian government's screening guidelines.5,7”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [5]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [7] source
The paper’s Table 1 identifies clinical breast examination as the test used in the Mumbai breast-screening trial, and the main text reports a mortality reduction among women aged 50 or older. It also says India has begun a breast-cancer screening program, citing a government operational framework (reference 9). It does not say that the government guidelines specifically recommend clinical breast examination. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerFor breast cancer, evidence suggests that women above 50 years of age should be considered for screening by clinical breast examination.
“For cervix, breast and oral cancer, it is recommended that screening should be conducted for the age group of 30 to 49; however, for breast cancer, evidence suggest that women above 50 years of age should be considered for screening by clinical breast examination.7”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] source
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerEvidence from randomized controlled trials conducted in India shows a positive outcome of screening and demonstrates reduced mortality of cervix, breast and oral cancers as a result of simple screening methods as well as a good referral system for diagnosis and effective treatment.
“Evidence from the randomized control trials (RCTs) conducted in India show the positive outcome of screening and demonstrates reduced mortality of cervix, breast and oral cancers as a result of simple screening methods as well as a good referral system for diagnosis and effective treatment.7”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] source
May combine two claims.
Findingnone given§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerEven though oral cancer incidence is high in Uttar Pradesh state, the screening uptake for oral cancer there is 1%.
“Even though oral cancer incidence is high in Uttar Pradesh state, the screening uptake for oral cancer is 1%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The NFHS-5 self-reported screening uptake figures accurately reflect actual screening participation among Indian adults aged 30-49 years.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerIn the European region, screening coverage is 40.2% for cervical cancer (age group 30-59) and 68.9% for breast cancer (age group 45-49).
“The screening coverage is extremely low compared to European region where screening coverage for cervical cancer (age group: 30-59) and breast cancer (age group: 45-49) is 40.2% and 68.9%, respectively.2”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerAs per the National Cancer Registry Programme India 2020, data from 28 Population-based Cancer Registries indicate that oral cancer is the leading cancer among males, whereas breast and cervix cancers are the predominant cancers in females.
“Furthermore, as per the National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP) India 2020, data from 28 Population-based Cancer Registries (PBCRs) indicate that oral cancer is the leading cancer among males; whereas breast and cervix cancers are predominant cancers in females.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerAs per GLOBOCAN 2020, there are 135 929 new lip and oral cavity cancer cases in India, with an age-standardized incidence rate of 9.8 per 100 000 population.
“As per GLOBOCAN 2020, there are 135 929 new lip and oral cavity cancer cases with the age-standardized incidence rate 9.8 per 100 000 population.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerThe current incidence of cervix, breast and oral cancers in India together with the NFHS-5 evidence on screening uptake point to a dire need to strengthen ongoing screening and early detection activities.
“The current incidence of cervix, breast and oral cancers in India and evidence from NFHS-5 regarding screening uptake point towards the dire need of strengthening the ongoing screening and early detection activities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerIn India, the reported incidence of cervix, breast and oral cancers is high.
“In India, the reported incidence of cervix, breast and oral cancers is high.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown data§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerThe NFHS-5 screening uptake data are specific to the age group 30-49 years, so information is not available for those aged 50 years and above.
“Since the screening uptake data in NFHS-5 survey is specific for the age group of 30 to 49 years, the information is not available for the 50 years and above age group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone given§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerData on screening uptake for cervix, breast and oral cancers are given for the first time in the NFHS-5 series.
“The data on screening uptake for cervix, breast and oral cancers are given for the first time in NFHS-5 series.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerOral cancer incidence in Uttar Pradesh state is high; the Varanasi PBCR reported oral cancer incidence in males of 22.4 per 100 000 in urban areas and 16.2 per 100 000 in rural areas.
“The oral cancer incidence in Uttar Pradesh state is high and a report published by the Varanasi PBCR reported oral cancer incidence in males for urban area 22.4 per 100 000 and rural 16.2 per 100 000. 10”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerFor males, oral cancer is the highest among tobacco-related cancers in the central (45.0%) and western (34.6%) regions of India; for females, the central region (44.8%) leads, followed by eastern (37.0%), southern (33.9%) and western (29.5%) regions.
“For males, oral cancer is reported the highest among tobacco-related cancers in central (45.0%) and western (34.6%) regions of India; whereas for females, central (44.8%) region is leading, followed by eastern (37.0%), southern (33.9%) and western (29.5%) regions.9”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerNegligence towards the screening program by the community and participants' busy schedules have a significant influence on low screening participation.
“Apart from these, negligence towards screening program by community and participants' busy schedules have a significant influence.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The fifth round of the National Family Health Survey of India 2019 to 2021 reported low screening uptake alarming to strengthen the implementation of early detection services of the cervix, breast and oral cancerIn India, 178 361 breast cancer cases and 123 907 cervix cancer cases were reported, with age-standardized incidence rates of 25.8 and 18.0 respectively.
“Moreover, a total of 178 361 and 123 907 breast and cervix cancer cases were reported in India with the agestandardized incidence rate of 25.8 and 18.0, respectively.8”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
The paper relies on this without support.
The NFHS-5 self-reported screening uptake figures accurately reflect actual screening participation among Indian adults aged 30-49 years.
“The data on screening uptake for cervix, breast and oral cancers are given for the first time in NFHS-5 series.”
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Self-citation
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
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“Moreover, the uptake of oral cancer screening is extremely poor in both genders [51].”
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“Apart from these three missing elements, there are several considerations that need to be addressed: With regard to screening, it is not known how accessible the screening camps being provided are to the local residents nor whether screening is provided at convenient times (Patel et al., 2022).”
InfluentialBudukh, A. M., Dora, T., Sancheti, S. M., Singh, V., Goel, A., Bagal, S. S., Kaur, A., Manchanda, I., Kaur, G., Gulia, A., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1002/ijc.34966 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“36 In resource-limited settings, screening is not a cost-effective method for cancer prevention.”
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“However, the latest National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) reported that only 1% of the Indian female population in the reproductive age group (aged 30–49 years) underwent breast cancer screening through CBE [12, 13].”
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“%) was similar to the 1 – 2% nationwide averages reported in the 2019 – 2021 National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) of India (Patel et al., 2022).”
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Burden of reproductive cancers in India: Insights from population-based cancer registries
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“National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) data indicates that an abysmal 1.2% of men and 0.9% of women aged 30–49 years in India have ever undergone an OCE [15].”
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“Despite the high burden of head and neck cancer in India, [26] the poor screening rates across Odisha as well as in India [27,28] highlight the urgent need to promote oral cancer screening services, which are crucial for improving patient outcomes and survival rates.”
Self-citation
- Authors
- Patel, K. K., Chakravarti, P., Chaturvedi, P., Dikshit, R., & Budukh, A.
- Affiliations
- Tata Memorial Hospital (IN)
- Homi Bhabha National Institute (IN)
- Corresponding author
- Budukh, Atul
- Venue
- International Journal of Cancer
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2022-02-11
- Volume
- 150
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1734-1736
- ISSN
- 0020-7136 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0215
- OpenAlex
- W4210278377
- Semantic Scholar
- 349bf045949839a1f3864af9436d8efe0d37bd39
- Cited by
- 12
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 0.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Cancer (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Global Cancer Incidence and Screening
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Women's cancer prevention and management
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Cervical Cancer and HPV Research
- Keywords
- breast cancer screening, oral cancer screening, cancer screening uptake, NFHS-5, early cancer detection, clinical breast examination, India, women aged 30-49, National Cancer Control Programme
- MeSH terms
- Cervix Uteri, Female, Humans, India, Mass Screening, Mouth Neoplasms, Early Detection of Cancer
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