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What causes psychosis? An umbrella review of risk and protective factors
Open accessAbstract
Psychosis is a heterogeneous psychiatric condition for which a multitude of risk and protective factors have been suggested. This umbrella review aimed to classify the strength of evidence for the associations between each factor and psychotic disorders whilst controlling for several biases. The Web of Knowledge database was searched to identify systematic reviews and meta‐analyses of observational studies which examined associations between socio‐demographic, parental, perinatal, later factors or antecedents and psychotic disorders, and which included a comparison group of healthy controls, published from 1965 to January 31, 2017. The literature search and data extraction followed PRISMA and MOOSE guidelines. The association between each factor and ICD or DSM diagnoses of non‐organic psychotic disorders was graded into convincing, highly suggestive, suggestive, weak, or non‐significant according to a standardized classification based on: number of psychotic cases, random‐effects p value, largest study 95% confidence interval, heterogeneity between studies, 95% prediction interval, small study effect, and excess significance bias. In order to assess evidence for temporality of association, we also conducted sensitivity analyses restricted to data from prospective studies. Fifty‐five meta‐analyses or systematic reviews were included in the umbrella review, corresponding to 683 individual studies and 170 putative risk or protective factors for psychotic disorders. Only the ultra‐high‐risk state for psychosis (odds ratio, OR=9.32, 95% CI: 4.91‐17.72) and Black‐Caribbean ethnicity in England (OR=4.87, 95% CI: 3.96‐6.00) showed convincing evidence of association. Six factors were highly suggestive (ethnic minority in low ethnic density area, second generation immigrants, trait anhedonia, premorbid IQ, minor physical anomalies, and olfactory identification ability), and nine were suggestive (urbanicity, ethnic minority in high ethnic density area, first generation immigrants, North‐African immigrants in Europe, winter/spring season of birth in Northern hemisphere, childhood social withdrawal, childhood trauma, Toxoplasma gondii IgG, and non‐right handedness). When only prospective studies were considered, the evidence was convincing for ultra‐high‐risk state and suggestive for urbanicity only. In summary, this umbrella review found several factors to be associated with psychotic disorders with different levels of evidence. These risk or protective factors represent a starting point for further etiopathological research and for the improvement of the prediction of psychosis.
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“The CHR-P criteria are robustly associated with psychosis onset (Odds Ratio, OR=9.32) 44 within high-risk clinical samples (but not in the general population 84 )”
From Preventive psychiatry: a blueprint for improving the mental health of young people (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Transition to psychosis is associated with clinically meaningful real-world outcomes 89 and is modulated by baseline levels of attenuated positive psychotic (OR=2.56) and negative (OR=2.68) symptoms, while good functioning reduces the risk (OR=0.59) 44 .”
From Preventive psychiatry: a blueprint for improving the mental health of young people (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Psychotic disorders are infrequent before the age of 14 43 ; their risk peaks in the age group of 15-35 and declines after the age of 35 44 .”
From Preventive psychiatry: a blueprint for improving the mental health of young people (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
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“Black - Caribbean ethnicity in England (OR=4.87) 44 ****”
From Preventive psychiatry: a blueprint for improving the mental health of young people (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
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“Evidence suggests that immigrants, ethnic/racial minorities, and those raised in certain urban environments are at a heightened risk for developing psychosis-spectrum disorders (10, 11).”
BackgroundAir pollution as cause of mental disease: Appraisal of the evidence
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BackgroundResultPolygenic Risk for Schizophrenia, Brain Structure, and Environmental Risk in UK Biobank
Zhu, X., Ward, J., Cullen, B., Lyall, D. M., Strawbridge, R. J., Smıth, D. J., & Lyall, L. M. (2021) · Schizophrenia Bulletin Open · doi:10.1093/schizbullopen/sgab042 · Cited by 16
“To develop a fuller picture of gene-by-environment interactions, additional studies on other factors such as migration background 39 are required.”
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“A key pathophysiological hypothesis for SZ and BD is abnormal neurodevelopment, which seems to fit with several observations of genetic susceptibility (Smeland et al., 2018) and early life stressors such as birth complications, infections, migration, neglect and trauma (Radua et al., 2018).”
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Pelizza, L., Azzali, S., Paterlini, F., Garlassi, S., Scazza, I., Chiri, L. R., Poletti, M., Pupo, S., Anestesia and Resuscitation Service, A. O.-U. D. P., & Raballo, A. (2021) · Psychiatria Danubina · doi:10.24869/psyd.2021.36 · Cited by 17
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Forte, M. F., Oliva, V., Prisco, M. D., Garriga, M., Bitanihirwe, B. K. Y., Alameda, L., Segura, À. G., Vieta, E., Baeza, I., Parellada, E., et al. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105913 · Cited by 17
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“Further, not being able to pool the data precluded definitively clarifying the timing and duration of the precursors, notwith-standing the heterogeneity in at-risk populations (Radua et al., 2018).”
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Cuesta, M. J., Papiol, S., Ibáñez, B., de Jalón, E. G., Sánchez-Torres, A. M., Gil‐Berrozpe, G. J., Moreno-Izco, L., Zarzuela, A., Fañanás, L., Peralta, V., et al. (2023) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291723000351 · Cited by 14
“However, most studies used a global score of obstetric complications (Cannon et al., 2002; Radua et al., 2018).”
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Adjorlolo, S., Mensah, G. P., & Badzi, C. D. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0263011 · Cited by 16
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Self-citationCarneiro, L. S. R. D. S. F., Clemente, F. M., Claudino, J. G., Ferreira, J. V., Ramírez‐Campillo, R., & Afonso, J. R. (2024) · BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies · doi:10.1186/s12906-024-04674-0 · Cited by 18
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Self-citationChildhood trauma and cognitive functioning in individuals at clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis
Velikonja, T., Velthorst, E., Zinberg, J. L., Cannon, T. D., Cornblatt, B. A., Perkins, D. O., Cadenhead, K. S., Tsuang, M. T., Addington, J., Woods, S. W., et al. (2020) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457941900155x · Cited by 15
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“Other environmental factors during pregnancy and the first few years of life, in conjunction with genetic vulnerability, most likely determine the final risk [3,46].”
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“CHR-P individuals have an increased probability of developing psychosis that can be related to several environmental risk factors (17, 18).”
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García‐Rizo, C., & Bitanihirwe, B. K. Y. (2025) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03096-9 · Cited by 13
“Further research is needed in terms of understanding the subsequent effect of other well-known risk and protective factors for psychosis [97] after the impact of perinatal events.”
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Fusar‐Poli, L., Prachason, T., Erzın, G., Pries, L.-K., Brondino, N., Politi, P., Delespaul, P., Kenis, G., Luykx, J. J., Lin, B. D., et al. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115184 · Cited by 12
“For instance, obstetric complications and immigration have been associated with both SSD and cognitive impairments (Radua et al., 2018; Wortinger et al., 2020).”
BackgroundThe role of interpersonal trauma and substance use in mental health: A large population-based study
Aas, M., Sideli, L., Franceschini, C., Alameda, L., Trotta, G., Coco, G. L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115712 · Cited by 12
“Interpersonal trauma (IPT) and substance use are associated with increased risk of psychopathology, cutting across affective and non-affective diagnosis (Radua et al., 2018; Rodriguez et al., 2021; van Nierop et al., 2015).”
BackgroundRodríguez, V., Alameda, L., Aas, M., Gayer-Anderson, C. E., Trotta, G., Spinazzola, E., Quattrone, D., Tripoli, G., Jongsma, H. E., Stilo, S. A., et al. (2024) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbae207 · Cited by 13
“27 Regarding risk factors for depression, strong evidence supports the role of childhood trauma 28 and stressful life events.”
Self-citationFerreira, F. R., de Paula, G. C., de Carvalho, R. J. V., Ribeiro-Barbosa, É. R., & Spini, V. B. M. G. (2019) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000503069 · Cited by 12
Post‐secondary students with symptoms of psychosis: A mixed‐methods systematic review
Sanderson, V., Vandyk, A. D., Graham, I. D., Lightfoot, S., Murawsky, M., Sikora, L., & Jacob, J. D. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/inm.12700 · Cited by 13
Solmi, M., Durbaba, S., Ashworth, M. J., & Fusar‐Poli, P. (2019) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.12908 · Cited by 12
“stages of SMIs, screening this subgroup could be potentially valuable, together with subjects exposed to risk factors for mental illness (Belbasis et al., 2018; Bortolato et al., 2017; Fullana et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2019; Kohler et al., 2018; Oliver, Reilly, et al., 2019; Radua et al., 2018; Tortella-Feliu et al.,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationCatalán, A., García, L., Sánchez-Alonso, S., Gil, P., Díaz‐Marsá, M., Olivares, J. M., Baltanás, T. R., Pérez‐Martín, J., Torres, M. Á. G., Ovejero, S., et al. (2020) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.13098 · Cited by 12
“young adulthood, with the peak risk between the ages of 12 and 25 years (Radua et al., 2018).”
BackgroundDodell‐Feder, D., Tully, L. M., Dudek, E. M., & Hooker, C. I. (2021) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsab028 · Cited by 13
“One possibility is that early social skills deficits, social anhedonia and social withdrawal—characteristics that describe individuals who later develop SSDs (Kwapil, 1998; Tarbox and Pogue-Geile, 2008; Radua et al., 2018)—reduce the quantity and quality of early social exposure in a way that prevents the specializati…”
BackgroundLi, Z., Zhang, T., Xu, L., Wei, Y., Cui, H., Tang, Y., Liu, X., Qian, Z., Zhang, H., Liu, P., et al. (2021) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2021.11.011 · Cited by 12
Treviranus, G. R. S. (2020) · PubMed · Cited by 12
Peering into the mind: unraveling schizophrenia’s secrets using models
Nani, J. V. S., Muotri, A. R., & Hayashi, M. A. F. (2024) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-024-02728-w · Cited by 11
“1), continues to pose a signi fi cant challenge to our understanding [14].”
Psychotic symptoms are associated with lower cortical folding in youth at risk for mental illness
Drobinin, V., Gestel, H. V., Zwicker, A., MacKenzie, L. E., Cumby, J., Patterson, V. C., Vallis, E. H., Campbell, N., Hájek, T., Helmick, C. A., et al. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1503/jpn.180144 · Cited by 10
Forced normalization: case series from a Spanish epilepsy unit
Barrios, L. C., Martín, G. G., Romero-Godoy, J., Acebal, M. R., & Muñoz, M. I. C. (2020) · Seizure · doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2020.07.020 · Cited by 11
Early versus late risk factors for deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia
Alabaf, S., Kirkpatrick, B. W., Chen, S., Cardinal, R. N., & Fernández-Egea, E. (2021) · Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental · doi:10.1016/j.rpsm.2021.03.002 · Cited by 11
Plana‐Ripoll, O., Prinzio, P. D., McGrath, J. J., Mortensen, P. B., & Morgan, V. A. (2021) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674211009615 · Cited by 11
“In more recent decades, observational epidemiology based in countries such as Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands has identified that those who are born and/or raised in densely populated urban settings have an increased risk of subsequently developing schizophrenia (Radua et al., 2018).”
BackgroundCross-diagnostic evaluation of minor physical anomalies in psychiatric disorders
Sreeraj, V. S., Puzhakkal, J. C., Holla, B., Nadella, R. K., Sheth, S., Balachander, S., Ithal, D., Ali, F., Viswanath, B., Muralidharan, K., et al. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.07.028 · Cited by 11
Cohort profile: SUPER-Finland – the Finnish study for hereditary mechanisms of psychotic disorders
Lähteenvuo, M., Ahola‐Olli, A., Suokas, K., Torniainen‐Holm, M., Misiewicz, Z., Jukuri, T., Männynsalo, T., Wegelius, A., Haaki, W., Kajanne, R., et al. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-070710 · Cited by 11
The complexity of vulnerability to psychosis
Fiorillo, A. (2018) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796018000690 · Cited by 11
“Psychotic symptoms would be the final pathway of a complex dysregulation (Craddock and Owen, 2010), and their appearance would depend on a multitude of genetic and environmental factors that interact at various levels and in various modalities (Radua et al., 2018).”
Solmi, M., Civardi, S. C., Corti, R., Anil, J., Demurtas, J., Lange, S., Raduà, J., Dragioti, E., Fusar‐Poli, P., & Carvalho, A. F. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.010 · Cited by 14
Self-citationDas, S., Taylor, K., Beaulah, S. A., & Gardner, S. (2022) · Patterns · doi:10.1016/j.patter.2022.100496 · Cited by 12
Wang, T., Oliver, D., Msosa, Y. J., Colling, C., Spada, G., Roguski, Ł., Folarin, A., Stewart, R. J., Roberts, A., Dobson, R., et al. (2020) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/60794-v · Cited by 11
Self-citationAbdullah, A. Y. M., Law, J., Perlman, C. M., & Butt, Z. A. (2022) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/34782 · Cited by 12
“Nevertheless, with increasing evidence that urban residents are particularly susceptible to various mental health disorders [6-9], it has become urgent to understand how vegetation could affect individuals of different ages and sex groups in an urban population.”
BackgroundObstetric complications and clinical presentation in first episode of psychosis
Verdolini, N., Mezquida, G., Valli, I., García‐Rizo, C., Cuesta, M. J., Vieta, E., Bioque, M., Lobo, A., González-Pinto, A. M., Pina‐Camacho, L., et al. (2023) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1017/neu.2023.9 · Cited by 11
“The general psychopathology score captures a wide array of symptoms of psychopathology, which could be referred to as transdiagnostic and OCs have been associated with a wide psychopathological presentation in childhood and adolescence (Roffman et al. , 2021).”
Face-brain correlates as potential sex-specific biomarkers for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder
Hostalet, N., González, A., Salgado‐Pineda, P., González, R., Canales-Rodríguez, E. J., Aguirre, C., Guerrero‐Pedraza, A., Llanos-Torres, M., Salvador, R. M., Pomarol‐Clotet, E., et al. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116027 · Cited by 10
Arribas, M., Barnby, J. M., Patel, R., McCutcheon, R. A., Kornblum, D., Shetty, H., Krakowski, K., Stahl, D. R., Koutsouleris, N., McGuire, P. K., et al. (2025) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-025-02896-3 · Cited by 10
“2,46 Our results show evidence for an existing prodrome in UMD, BMD and PSY which is similar but not completely overlapping across the SMD diagnostic groups.”
Self-citationAddington, J., Liu, L., Braun, A., Auther, A. M., Calkins, M. E., Cornblatt, B. A., Corcoran, C. M., Fusar‐Poli, P., Kerr, M., Mourgues, C., et al. (2025) · Schizophrenia · doi:10.1038/s41537-025-00556-7 · Cited by 10
“Of note, the accumulation of these interactions through exposure to risk factors results in increased psychosis risk 67 – 71 .”
Self-citationDomínguez‐Martínez, T., Sheinbaum, T., Fresán, A., Nieto, L., López, S. R., Robles, R., Lara, M. D. C., de la Fuente‐Sandoval, C., Neus Barrantes-vidal, A., Saracco, R., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1095222 · Cited by 11
“Consistent with a robust body of work, we found that early and subsequent exposure to psychosocial stress and adversity was associated with vulnerability to psychosis (12, 27, 30, 37, 132, 133).”
BackgroundBonoldi, I., Allen, P., Madeira, L., Tognin, S., Bossong, M. G., Azis, M., Samson, C., Quinn, B., Calem, M., Valmaggia, L., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00254 · Cited by 11
“The increased risk that is observed in these individuals is mostly due to the accumulation of several risk factors for psychosis (18, 19) during the sampling and the recruitment of these individuals (20, 21).”
BackgroundSelf-citationOlfactory neuroepithelium alterations and cognitive correlates in schizophrenia
Idotta, C., Tibaldi, E. V., Brunati, A. M., Pagano, M. A., Cadamuro, M., Miola, A., Martini, A., Favaretto, N., Cazzador, D., Favaro, A., et al. (2019) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.06.004 · Cited by 11
“[38] Given that olfactory identification ability has been confirmed among risk factors of psychosis [5], and that ONE underlies olfactory identification ability, it could be expected that ONE alterations are there before first-episode psychosis, for example in patients with ARMS.”
Zhao, T., Markevych, I., Janßen, C., Nowak, D., Steckling‐Muschack, N., & Heinrich, J. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-034854 · Cited by 10
Morgan, V. A., Prinzio, P. D., Valuri, G. M., Croft, M. L., McNeil, T. F., & Jablensky, A. V. (2019) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867419864427 · Cited by 10
“Familial liability, based on maternal lifetime history of schizophrenia as recorded in the clinical psychiatric registers, is an approximation for genetic factors underpinning disease risk, as distinct from ‘non-purely genetic factors’ (Radua et al., 2018) which may include environmental exposures associated with a fa…”
BackgroundMapping the implementation and challenges of clinical services for psychosis prevention in England
Estradé, A., Spencer, T. J., Micheli, A. D., Murguia, S., Provenzani, U., McGuire, P. K., & Fusar‐Poli, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.945505 · Cited by 11
“Importantly, most CHR-P services have been implemented in areas with higher levels of socioeconomic deprivation, highlighting a window of opportunities for impacting core social factors determining the onset of psychosis (13).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationZhou, X., Liang, Z., & Zhang, G. (2025) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2025.2455800 · Cited by 10
“…well-documented risk factor for a spectrum of psychiatric conditions, including depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder (Agnew-Blais & Danese, 2016; Baldwin et al., 2023; Fusar-Poli et al., 2017; Humphreys et al., 2020; Mandelli et al., 2015; Marques-Feixa et al., 2023; Radua et al., 2018).”
Fusar‐Poli, P., Pillinger, T., McCutcheon, R. A., Rangaswamy, T., Asmal, L., Singh, S. P., Oliver, D., Stefanelli, R., Crossley, N. A., Gadelha, A., et al. (2026) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.70066 · Cited by 19
“…diseases and diabetes) 16-19 , a complex etiopathology (with an interplay of genetic and environmental factors impacting the underlying neurobiology 20-22 ), and cracks in the siloed somatic and mental health care systems, which are often exacerbated by arbitrary age-dependent service splits at…”
InfluentialSelf-citationThe experiences of inpatient nursing staff caring for young people with early psychosis
Thompson, J., Boden, Z., Newton, E. K., Fenton, K., Hickman, G., & Larkin, M. (2019) · Journal of research in nursing · doi:10.1177/1744987118818857 · Cited by 9
Course of intellectual functioning in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a 10-year follow-up study
Flaaten, C. B., Melle, I. S., Gardsjord, E. S., Bjella, T. D., Engen, M. J., Vaskinn, A., Åsbø, G., Wold, K. F., Widing, L. H., Lyngstad, S. H., et al. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721004645 · Cited by 9
Braun, A., Kraft, J., & Ripke, S. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04447-4 · Cited by 10
Алфимова, М. В., Lezheiko, T., Smirnova, S. V., Gabaeva, M. V., & Golimbet, V. E. (2020) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.03.014 · Cited by 9
Developmental influences on symptom expression in antipsychotic-naïve first-episode psychosis
Bridgwater, M. A., Bachman, P., Tervo‐Clemmens, B., Haas, G. L., Hayes, R. A., Luna, B., Salisbury, D. F., & Jalbrzikowski, M. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720003463 · Cited by 8
“Furthermore, while we report our results within context of the neurodevelopmental model of psychosis, we did not associate symptom severity with earlier, pre- and postnatal risk factors (Fusar-Poli et al., 2017; Radua et al., 2018; Ellman et al., 2019).”
Early intervention in psychosis during the COVID-19 pandemic: Maudsley recommendations
Jauhar, S., Lai, S., Bonoldi, I., de Pablo, G. S., Forti, M. D., Alameda, L., Donocik, J. G., Iacoponi, E., Spencer, T. J., Haege, B., et al. (2021) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.02.005 · Cited by 9
Self-citationITAlian Partnership for Psychosis Prevention (ITAPP): improving the mental health of young people
Fusar‐Poli, P., Minichino, A., Brambilla, P., Raballo, A., Bertolino, A., Borgatti, R., Mensi, M. M., Ferro, A., & Galderisi, S. (2021) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.2232 · Cited by 11
Self-citationCombining MRI and clinical data to detect high relapse risk after the first episode of psychosis
Solanes, A., Mezquida, G., Janssen, J., Amoretti, S., Lobo, A., González-Pinto, A. M., Arango, C., Vieta, E., Castro‐Fornieles, J., Bergé, D., et al. (2022) · Schizophrenia · doi:10.1038/s41537-022-00309-w · Cited by 9
Neurocognition and functioning in adolescents at clinical high risk for psychosis
Mensi, M. M., Marika, O., Casini, E., Catalán, A., de Pablo, G. S., Fusar‐Poli, P., & Borgatti, R. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-023-00567-1 · Cited by 9
“Literature states that psychosis typically onsets in adolescence and early adulthood [1] and much research has highlighted the importance of detection, prognosis, and”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Radua, J., Ramella‐Cravaro, V., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Reichenberg, A., Phiphopthatsanee, N., Amir, T., Yenn Thoo, H., Oliver, D., Davies, C., Morgan, C., McGuire, P., Murray, R. M., & Fusar‐Poli, P.
- Affiliations
- Early Psychosis: Interventions & Clinical‐detection (EPIC) Lab, Department of Psychosis Studies Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London London UK
- King's College London (GB)
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- World Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-01-19
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 49-66
- ISSN
- 1723-8617 (ISSN-L)
- 2051-5545
- PMC
- PMC5775150
- OpenAlex
- W2768338105
- Cited by
- 553
- References
- 158
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 15
- FWCI
- 49.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- World Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CP14/00041 and PI14/00292)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- psychosis, risk factors, protective factors, ethnic minorities, urbanicity, immigrant status, childhood trauma, season of birth, Toxoplasma gondii, handedness, anhedonia, premorbid intelligence, birth order
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