Role of inflammation in short sleep duration across childhood and psychosis in young adulthood
Open accessAbstract
Importance: Short sleep duration over a prolonged period in childhood could have a detrimental impact on long-term mental health, including the development of psychosis. Further, potential underlying mechanisms of these associations remain unknown. Objective: To examine the association between persistent shorter nighttime sleep duration throughout childhood with psychotic experiences (PEs) and/or psychotic disorder (PD) at age 24 years and whether inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein [CRP] and interleukin 6 [IL-6]) potentially mediate any association. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Data analysis was conducted from January 30 to August 1, 2023. Exposures: Nighttime sleep duration was collected at 6, 18, and 30 months and at 3.5, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, and 6 to 7 years. Main Outcomes and Measures: PEs and PD were assessed at age 24 years from the Psychosislike Symptoms Interview. CRP level at ages 9 and 15 years and IL-6 level at 9 years were used as mediators. Latent class growth analyses (LCGAs) were applied to detect trajectories of nighttime sleep duration, and logistic regressions were applied for the longitudinal associations between trajectories of nighttime sleep duration and psychotic outcomes at 24 years. Path analyses were applied to test CRP and IL-6 as potential mediators. Results: Data were available on 12 394 children (6254 female [50.5%]) for the LCGA and on 3962 young adults (2429 female [61.3%]) for the logistic regression and path analyses. The LCGA identified a group of individuals with persistent shorter nighttime sleep duration across childhood. These individuals were more likely to develop PD (odds ratio [OR], 2.50; 95% CI, 1.51-4.15; P < .001) and PEs (OR, 3.64; 95% CI, 2.23-5.95; P < .001) at age 24 years. Increased levels of IL-6 at 9 years, but not CRP at 9 or 15 years, partially mediated the associations between persistent shorter sleep duration and PD (bias-corrected estimate = 0.003; 95% CI, 0.002-0.005; P = .007) and PEs (bias-corrected estimate = 0.002; 95% CI, 0-0.003; P = .03) in young adulthood. Conclusions and Relevance: Findings of this cohort study highlight the necessity of addressing short sleep duration in children, as persistence of this sleep problem was associated with subsequent psychosis. This study also provides preliminary evidence for future targeted interventions in children addressing both sleep and inflammatory responses.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Higher levels of IL-6 in late childhood partially mediate the association between persistent shorter sleep duration across early childhood and subsequent psychotic disorder or psychotic experiences in young adulthood.
“higher levels of IL-6 in late childhood were shown to partially mediate the association between persistent shorter sleep duration across early childhood and subsequent psychotic disorder or psychotic experiences in young adulthood.”
From Towards an Integrative Account of Potential Mechanisms Mediating the Path From Sleep Dysfunction to Hallucinations (2025) · cites this paper as [82]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
IL‐6 in inflammation, immunity, and disease
Tanaka, T., Narazaki, M., & Kishimoto, T. (2014) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a016295 · Cited by 5,046 · see citing works
Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: Large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies
Solmi, M., Radua, J., Olivola, M., Croce, E., Soardo, L., Salazar de Pablo, G., Il Shin, J., Kirkbride, J. B., Jones, P., Kim, J. H., et al. (2022) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7 · Cited by 3,835 · see citing works
Age of onset of mental disorders: a review of recent literature
Kessler, R. C., Amminger, G. P., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Lee, S., & ??st??n, T. B. (2007) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e32816ebc8c · Cited by 3,457 · see citing works
An Introduction to Latent Class Growth Analysis and Growth Mixture Modeling
Jung, T., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2007) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00054.x · Cited by 3,228 · see citing works
Boyd, A., Golding, J., Macleod, J., Lawlor, D. A., Fraser, A., Henderson, J., Molloy, L., Ness, A., Ring, S., & Davey Smith, G. (2013) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dys064 · Cited by 2,996 · see citing works
Cohort Profile: The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children: ALSPAC mothers cohort
Fraser, A., Macdonald-Wallis, C., Tilling, K., Boyd, A., Golding, J., Davey Smith, G., Henderson, J., Macleod, J., Molloy, L., Ness, A., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dys066 · Cited by 2,494 · see citing works
Goodman, R., Ford, T., Richards, H., Gatward, R., & Meltzer, H. (2000) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2000.tb02345.x · Cited by 1,755 · see citing works
Meta-Analysis of Cytokine Alterations in Schizophrenia: Clinical Status and Antipsychotic Effects
Miller, B. J., Buckley, P., Seabolt, W., Mellor, A., & Kirkpatrick, B. (2011) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.04.013 · Cited by 1,742 · see citing works
Lewis, G., Pelosi, A. J., Araya, R., & Dunn, G. (1992) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700030415 · Cited by 1,487 · see citing works
Sleep Duration From Infancy to Adolescence: Reference Values and Generational Trends
Iglowstein, I., Jenni, O. G., Molinari, L., & Largo, R. H. (2003) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.111.2.302 · Cited by 1,318 · see citing works
Sleep and inflammation: partners in sickness and in health
Irwin, M. R. (2019) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-019-0190-z · Cited by 1,090 · see citing works
Rethinking IL-6 and CRP: Why they are more than inflammatory biomarkers, and why it matters
Del Giudice, M., & Gangestad, S. W. (2018) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2018.02.013 · Cited by 779 · see citing works
Sleep health: Reciprocal regulation of sleep and innate immunity
Irwin, M. R., & Opp, M. R. (2017) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2016.148 · Cited by 624 · see citing works
Role of sleep deprivation in immune-related disease risk and outcomes
Garbarino, S., Lanteri, P., Bragazzi, N. L., Magnavita, N., & Scoditti, E. (2021) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-021-02825-4 · Cited by 617 · see citing works
What causes psychosis? An umbrella review of risk and protective factors
Radua, J., Ramella‐Cravaro, V., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Reichenberg, A., Phiphopthatsanee, N., Amir, T., Yenn Thoo, H., Oliver, D., Davies, C., Morgan, C., et al. (2018) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20490 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
Obesity: A Chronic Low-Grade Inflammation and Its Markers
Khanna, D., Khanna, S., Khanna, P., Kahar, P., & Patel, B. M. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.22711 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Circadian Interleukin-6 Secretion and Quantity and Depth of Sleep
Vgontzas, A. N., Papanicolaou, D. A., Bixler, E. O., Lotsikas, A., Zachman, K., Kales, A., Prolo, P., Wong, M.-L., Licinio, J., Gold, P. W., et al. (1999) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jcem.84.8.5894 · Cited by 516 · see citing works
Inflammation and Brain Structure in Schizophrenia and Other Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Williams, J. A., Burgess, S., Suckling, J., Lalousis, P. A., Batool, F., Griffiths, S. L., Palmer, E. R., Karwath, A., Barsky, A., Gkoutos, G. V., et al. (2022) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0407 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
IQ and non-clinical psychotic symptoms in 12-year-olds: results from the ALSPAC birth cohort
Horwood, J., Salvi, G., Thomas, K., Duffy, L., Gunnell, D., Hollis, C., Lewis, G., Menezes, P., Thompson, A., Wolke, D., et al. (2008) · The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051904 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Koyanagi, A., & Stickley, A. (2015) · Sleep · doi:10.5665/sleep.5232 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Waters, F., Chiu, V., Atkinson, A., & Blom, J. D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00303 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Reeve, S., Emsley, R., Sheaves, B., & Freeman, D. (2017) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx103 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Causes and outcomes of markedly elevated C-reactive protein levels.
Landry, A., Docherty, P., Ouellette, S., & Cartier, L.-J. (2017) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Mazza, S., Bastuji, H., & Rey, A. E. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00495 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Normal sleep development in infants: findings from two large birth cohorts
Paavonen, E. J., Saarenpää‐Heikkilä, O., Morales‐Muñoz, I., Virta, M., Häkälä, N., Pölkki, P., Kylliäinen, A., Karlsson, H., Paunio, T., & Karlsson, L. (2020) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2020.01.009 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Sleep deprivation disrupts prepulse inhibition and induces psychosis-like symptoms in healthy humans
Petrovsky, N., Ettinger, U., Hill, A., Frenzel, L., Meyhofer, I., Wagner, M., Backhaus, J., & Kumari, V. (2014) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0904-14.2014 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Longitudinal sleep problem trajectories are associated with multiple impairments in child well‐being
Williamson, A. A., Mindell, J. A. A., Hiscock, H., & Quach, J. (2020) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13303 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Sleep and Inflammation During Adolescence
Park, H., Tsai, K. M., Dahl, R. E., Irwin, M. R., McCreath, H. E., Seeman, T. E., & Fuligni, A. J. (2016) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000340 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Perry, B. I., Štochl, J., Upthegrove, R., Zammit, S., Wareham, N. J., Langenberg, C., Winpenny, E. M., Dunger, D. B., Jones, P. B., & Khandaker, G. M. (2021) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.4180 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Childhood Parasomnias and Psychotic Experiences at Age 12 Years in a United Kingdom Birth Cohort
Fisher, H. L., Lereya, S. T., Thompson, A., Lewis, G., Zammit, S., & Wolke, D. (2014) · SLEEP · doi:10.5665/sleep.3478 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Qu, G., Liu, H., Han, T., Zhang, H., Ma, S., Sun, L., Qin, Q., Chen, M., Zhou, X., & Sun, Y. (2023) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-023-02185-w · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Lunsford‐Avery, J. R., & Mittal, V. A. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12041 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Sheaves, B., Bebbington, P., Goodwin, G. M., Harrison, P. J., Espie, C. A., Foster, F., & Freeman, D. H. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.03.055 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Harron, K. L., Gilbert, R. E., Fagg, J., Guttmann, A., & van der Meulen, J. (2021) · The Lancet Public Health · doi:10.1016/s2468-2667(20)30210-3 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Childhood sleep disturbance and risk of psychotic experiences at 18: UK birth cohort
Thompson, A., Lereya, S. T., Lewis, G., Zammit, S., Fisher, H. L., & Wolke, D. (2015) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.144089 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Sleep, circadian rhythms, and schizophrenia
Cosgrave, J., Wulff, K., & Gehrman, P. (2018) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000419 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Sleep disturbances and inflammatory biomarkers in schizophrenia: focus on sex differences
Lee, E. E., Ancoli-Israel, S., Eyler, L. T., Tu, X. M., Palmer, B. W., Irwin, M. R., & Jeste, D. V. (2019) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2018.09.017 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
A literature review of sleep problems and neurodevelopment disorders
Lihabi, A. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1122344 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Bell, J. A., Hamer, M., Richmond, R. C., Timpson, N. J., Carslake, D., & Smith, G. D. (2018) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002649 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Ranum, B. M., Wichstrøm, L., Pallesen, S., Falch-Madsen, J., Halse, M., & Steinsbekk, S. (2019) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.18281 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Sleep and Mental Health Problems in Children and Adolescents
Morales‐Muñoz, I., & Gregory, A. M. (2023) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2023.01.006 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Perry, B. I., Zammit, S., Jones, P. B., & Khandaker, G. M. (2021) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2021.02.008 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Morales‐Muñoz, I., Broome, M. R., & Marwaha, S. (2020) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.1875 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Pontillo, M., Averna, R., Tata, M. C., Chieppa, F., Pucciarini, M. L., & Vicari, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.662093 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Wadman, R., Hiller, R. M., & Clair, M. S. (2019) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579419000191 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Sociodemographic and environmental factors associated with childhood sleep duration
Yip, T., Cheon, Y. M., Wang, Y., Deng, W. Q., & Seligson, A. L. (2020) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2020.05.007 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Morales‐Muñoz, I., Palmer, E. R., Marwaha, S., Mallikarjun, P. K., & Upthegrove, R. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.12.003 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Garske, K. M., Kar, A., Comenho, C., Balliu, B., Pan, D. Z., Bhagat, Y. V., Rosenberg, G. M., Koka, A., Das, S. S., Miao, Z., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39919-y · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Fragmented sleep relates to hallucinations across perceptual modalities in the general population
Brederoo, S. G., de Boer, J. N., de Vries, J., Linszen, M. M. J., & Sommer, I. E. C. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-87318-4 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Nocturnal sleep duration trajectories in early childhood and school performance at age 10 years
Petit, D., Touchette, É., Pennestri, M., Paquet, J., Côté, S. M., Tremblay, R. E., Boivin, M., & Montplaisir, J. Y. (2023) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13893 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Radmanish, M., Khalfallah, O., Glaichenhaus, N., Forhan, A., Heude, B., Charles, M.-A. A., Davidovic, L., & Plancoulaine, S. (2022) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100429 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Meltzer, L. J., Plog, A. E., Wahlstrom, K. L., & Strand, M. J. (2022) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2022.01.003 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Morales-Muñoz, I., Upthegrove, R., Lawrence, K., Thayakaran, R., Kooij, S., Gregory, A. M., & Marwaha, S. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13755 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Jiang, W., He, Y., Liu, Q., Peng, S., Ni, Y., Zhong, X., & Guo, L. (2024) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2024.10.034 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Divergent biological pathways linking short and long sleep durations to mental and physical health
Li, Y., Gong, W., Sahakian, B. J., Huang, S., Zhang, W., Zhao, Y., Ma, L., Naismith, S. L., Yu, J., Jia, T., et al. (2025) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-025-00395-6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…between short sleep duration and inflammation could be attributed to the fact that sleep disturbance may adversely affect the hypothalamic– pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system, two effector systems of the central nervous system that regulate the immune response 37,43 .”
Brain Health in Sleep Disorders
Ji, K., & Yun, C. (2024) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2024.10.004 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Sheaves, B., Cropley, V. L., Moseley, P., Woodruff, P. W. R., Punton, G., Speth, C., Speth, J., Meerlo, P., & Brederoo, S. G. (2025) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbaf107 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“82 Although this study cannot imply causality, it provides preliminary support for a mechanistic path from sleep dysfunction to psychotic experiences via inflammation.”
Wang, W., Yao, M., Li, S., Lv, Y., Yao, L., Fan, Y., Wang, Y., & Pang, X. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-00367-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Prolonged sleep deprivation in pediatric patients can negatively impact long-term mental health, potentially contributing to the development of psychosis 34 .”
Abe, T., Viana, R. B., Abe, A., Machida, S., Naito, H., & Loenneke, J. P. (2026) · Translational Sports Medicine · doi:10.1155/tsm2/1091342 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“However, several lifestyle-related factors, such as sports type [15, 16], sleep duration [49], and diets [50–53], are reported to impact HGS or markers of insulin resistance and infammation in children and adolescents.”
Chen, D., Zhang, Y., Ye, H., Bu, L., Li, Y., Chen, H. Y., Wang, D., & Fan, F. (2026) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.70128 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Elevated inflammatory markers such as IL-6 and CRP have been linked to an increased risk of later psychotic experiences (Khandaker et al. 2021; Perry et al. 2021; Morales-Munoz et al. 2024).”
Role of pentosidine accumulation in stress-induced social behavioral deficits
Masada, M., Toriumi, K., Suzuki, K., Miyashita, M., Itokawa, M., & Arai, M. (2025) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2025.138180
Abe, T., Viana, R. B., Abe, A., Machida, S., Naıto, H., & Loenneke, J. P. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6291913/v1
Chen, Y., Xu, S., Duan, M., & Shen, L. (2025) · Vascular Health and Risk Management · doi:10.2147/vhrm.s532476
“Poor sleep patterns may promote the release of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), 24,25 which play crucial roles in the transformation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) into osteoblast-like cells, followed by calcification.”
Zahir, R., Moody, S. C., Morales‐Muñoz, I., Murray, A. L., Fletcher‐Watson, S., Kwong, A. S. F., & Smith, D. J. (2026) · medRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.03.10.26348028
Sleep and Psychiatric Comorbidities
Thomas, D. C., Pandian, A. P. G., Gupta, S., & Betlinski, J. (2026) · Medical Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2025.12.004
Amos, R., Durdurak, B., Gregory, A. M., Marwaha, S., & Morales-Muñoz, I. (2026) · European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-026-03053-z
“…work from our group identified persistent shorter night-time sleep duration and late chro - notype as distinct developmental sleep problems associated with poorer mental health outcomes [ 26–28 ], motivating further investigation of these patterns in relation to depres - sive symptom trajectories.”
Influential
- Authors
- Morales-Muñoz, I., Marwaha, S., Upthegrove, R., & Cropley, V.
- Affiliations
- Institute for Mental Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Birmingham Women’s and Children’s NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Venue
- JAMA Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2024-08-01
- Volume
- 81
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 825
- ISSN
- 2168-622X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11079792
- OpenAlex
- W4396747366
- Cited by
- 13
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 2
- FWCI
- 5.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- JAMA Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council (MR/S037675/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Keywords
- short sleep duration, children's sleep, psychosis, psychotic experiences, inflammation, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, mediation, Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, latent class growth analysis, path analysis, maternal depression, maternal anxiety, maternal alcohol use
- MeSH terms
- Sleep Duration, Adolescent, Adult, C-Reactive Protein, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Inflammation, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Psychotic Disorders, Sleep, Time Factors, Interleukin-6, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
