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The “online brain”: how the Internet may be changing our cognition
Open accessAbstract
The impact of the Internet across multiple aspects of modern society is clear. However, the influence that it may have on our brain structure and functioning remains a central topic of investigation. Here we draw on recent psychological, psychiatric and neuroimaging findings to examine several key hypotheses on how the Internet may be changing our cognition. Specifically, we explore how unique features of the online world may be influencing: a) attentional capacities, as the constantly evolving stream of online information encourages our divided attention across multiple media sources, at the expense of sustained concentration; b) memory processes, as this vast and ubiquitous source of online information begins to shift the way we retrieve, store, and even value knowledge; and c) social cognition, as the ability for online social settings to resemble and evoke real‐world social processes creates a new interplay between the Internet and our social lives, including our self‐concepts and self‐esteem. Overall, the available evidence indicates that the Internet can produce both acute and sustained alterations in each of these areas of cognition, which may be reflected in changes in the brain. However, an emerging priority for future research is to determine the effects of extensive online media usage on cognitive development in youth, and examine how this may differ from cognitive outcomes and brain impact of uses of Internet in the elderly. We conclude by proposing how Internet research could be integrated into broader research settings to study how this unprecedented new facet of society can affect our cognition and the brain across the life course.
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“Moreover, students who exceed 2 hours of daily screen time on social media tend to exhibit poorer performance on cognitive assessments in comparison to those with restricted screen time (Firth, Torous, Stubbs, Steiner, Smith,2019).”
From SCROLLING AND SUSTAINED ATTENTION: HOW SOCIAL MEDIA INFLUENCE SUSTAINED ATTENTION OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS (2024) · cites this paper as Firth, Torous, Stubbs, Steiner, Smith,2019
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“Our findings are consistent with previous research indicating that excessive reliance on AI tools can negatively impact critical thinking skills.”
From AI Tools in Society: Impacts on Cognitive Offloading and the Future of Critical Thinking (2025) · cites this paper as Firth et al. [24]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Children who used digital tools for more than 2 h per day had lower scores on cognitive tests than those who used them less (Firth et al., 2019).”
From The impact of digital technology, social media, and artificial intelligence on cognitive functions: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Firth et al., 2019
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“Paradoxically, social media use is linked to social isolation (ie, a lack of social connections and quality relationships with others),21 which is associated with poor health outcomes and increased mortality.1”
From Brain health consequences of digital technology use (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
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“We have indeed transitioned now from the information age to the age of interruption (Firth et al., 2019).”
From The impact of digital technology, social media, and artificial intelligence on cognitive functions: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Firth et al., 2019
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“On the other hand, they highlight that the Internet is an unprecedented form of extended memory.”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Firth et al. (2019)
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“On the one hand, they summarize how the Internet is a major drain on attention in everyday life.”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Firth et al. (2019)
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“constant Internet usage may be affecting our cognitive and social processes, along with mental health and brain functioning 124 .”
From A meta-review of "lifestyle psychiatry": the role of exercise, smoking, diet and sleep in the prevention and treatment of mental disorders (2020) · cites this paper as [124]
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“engagement through the MyCHOIS–CommonGround website was associated with a higher level of ongoing engagement in out-patient mental health service compared to that of the control group”
From The role of shared decision-making in improving adherence to pharmacological treatments in patients with schizophrenia: A clinical review (2020) · cites this paper as [47]
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“although no significant differences were found in the adherence rate with antipsychotic medication”
From The role of shared decision-making in improving adherence to pharmacological treatments in patients with schizophrenia: A clinical review (2020) · cites this paper as [47]
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“Another noticeable advantage was the cost-effectiveness of the intervention which makes it particularly suitable for attaining long-term outcomes in patients with severe mental disorders [46–50]”
From The role of shared decision-making in improving adherence to pharmacological treatments in patients with schizophrenia: A clinical review (2020) · cites this paper as [47]
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Zhu, X., Ni, Z., Zhu, X., Yang, Y., Xie, S., Wang, X., & Yang, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1569022 · Cited by 4
“As internet-based information technologies like smartphones and wearables become more integrated into daily cognitive activities, older individuals may develop enhanced online cognitive capabilities, potentially surpassing those of younger generations (12).”
Ibrahim, B., Çelik, F., Sthapit, E., & Rana, N. P. (2025) · Journal of Marketing Communications · doi:10.1080/13527266.2025.2597997 · Cited by 4
The mind online: Can digital technologies affect how we think?
Ρούσσος, Π. (2023) · Psychology the Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society · doi:10.12681/psy_hps.36226 · Cited by 6
How Might Artificial Intelligence Influence Human Evolution?
Brooks, R. C. (2024) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/733290 · Cited by 6
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACADEMIC SELF-EFFICACY AND COGNITIVE LOAD FOR STUDENTS IN DISTANCE LEARNING
Griškēviča, I., & Iltners, M. (2021) · Education Innovation Diversity · doi:10.17770/eid2021.1.5426 · Cited by 6
Leadership education in professional and graduate schools
Simen, J. H., & Meyer, T. (2021) · New Directions for Student Leadership · doi:10.1002/yd.20461 · Cited by 4
Effect of Traditional and Software-Defined Networking on Performance of Computer Network
Sadiku, I. B., Ajayi, W., Sakpere, W., JOHN-DEWOLE, T. A., & Badru, R. A. (2022) · Scientific Journal of Informatics · doi:10.15294/sji.v9i2.31315 · Cited by 4
Dimensões subjetivas na Saúde Digital
Gonçalves, L. H. D. N., Castro, L., Rachid, R., Penteado, B. E., & Fornazin, M. (2022) · Liinc em Revista · doi:10.18617/liinc.v18i2.6053 · Cited by 4
Mann, R. B. (2024) · Journal of Media Literacy Education · doi:10.23860/jmle-2024-16-1-1 · Cited by 4
“…skills and the superiority of reading offline, it remains that most adolescents are constantly consuming texts online, requiring a restructuring of our understanding of being literate and the ways in which we teach literacy in schools, particularly in the secondary grades (Firth et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInternet Usage Among Senior Citizens During Covid - 19
Lee, C. K., Lee, A., & Lee, C. E. C. (2021) · International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information Systems · doi:10.1109/icriis53035.2021.9617031 · Cited by 4
Configuración de subjetividades mediante sistemas de inteligencia artificial
Tao, H. B. (2025) · Sophía · doi:10.17163/soph.n39.2025.02 · Cited by 3
Rodrigues, F. L. N., Martín, S. C., & Pocinho, R. F. D. S. (2025) · Digital · doi:10.3390/digital5030037 · Cited by 4
Christine Wamsler, B., Stephan, L., Fletcher, M., & Bristow, J. (2025) · Sustainability Science · doi:10.1007/s11625-025-01761-0 · Cited by 5
Chen, Y., Xu, C., Hu, J., & Ye, J.-H. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1761069 · Cited by 4
Liu, Y., & Liu, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859317 · Cited by 3
“…that highly convenient and readily accessible technologies are often accompanied by cognitive offloading, whereby learners shift part of the processing burden to external systems and may invest less in analysis, memory, and monitoring (Barr et al., 2015; Firth et al., 2019; Sparrow et al., 2011).”
Muñoz, J. M. (2026) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.70381 · Cited by 3
“The concept of digital natives has nevertheless proved useful as a working hypothesis for investigating whether and how technological environments may decisively shape cognitive and social development [ 9, 13, 14 ].”
Firth, J., Linardon, J., Sawyer, C. S., French, C., Stubbs, B., Firth, J. A., Solmi, M., Torous, J. B., Berhe, K., Hallal, P. C., et al. (2026) · Journal of Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.1123/jpah.2026-0550 · Cited by 3
Self-citationYaman, F. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1191631 · Cited by 5
Is the Internet a Cognitive Enhancement?
Dempsey, R. P., Coin, A., & Dubljević, V. (2024) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-024-00289-y · Cited by 3
“Additionally, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) evidence indicates that functional changes from Internet use affect the deep processing of information and impair long-term memory (Carr, 2011; Firth et al., 2019).”
InfluentialInfluencers and prosocial luxury dynamics
Cenizo, C. (2024) · Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management · doi:10.1002/csr.3035 · Cited by 4
Digital Footprints Among University Students: Patterns & Privacy Implications
Vilar, M. J. B., Aspuria, A. A., Garcia, J. I. G., Bautista, L. J. M., Donato, L. E. F., Villaluz, A. C., & Intal, G. L. (2024) · International Conference on Software Technology and Engineering · doi:10.1109/icste63875.2024.00026 · Cited by 3
“[1][4].”
Wang, J., Zhang, N., Huang, C., Wu, Q., & Tong, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2025.1579874 · Cited by 3
Hou, C., Foscht, T., Duffek, B., Arigayota, A., & Eisingerich, A. B. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/76770 · Cited by 3
“When online spaces become sources of bullying or pressure, it undermines that support and can negatively affect a young person’s self-confidence and emotional well-being [22-25].”
Artificial Fantasy: The Effect of Generative AI on Cognitive Empathy in Creative Problem Solving
Karl, A., Theophilou, E., & Hernández‐Leo, D. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-98420-4_6 · Cited by 3
Unmet Needs in Modern Psychiatric Practice
Sampogna, G., Luciano, M., Vecchio, V. D., Giallonardo, V., Pocai, B., Pompili, M., & Fiorillo, A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42637-8_1 · Cited by 3
Cómo la tecnología puede perjudicar a los niños y jóvenes
Rodrigues, F. D. A. A. (2022) · Ciencia Latina Revista Científica Multidisciplinar · doi:10.37811/cl_rcm.v6i2.1866 · Cited by 3
Hodnoty českých a slovenských adolescentov pod vplyvom kyberpriestoru
Považanová, B., Dolejš, M., Kňažek, G., & Banárová, K. (2022) · doi:10.5507/ff.22.24462578 · Cited by 3
Cancelled: Effect of Cyber-Ostracism on the Mental Condition of Instagram Users
Yusainy, C., Putri, I. L., Fadliilah, L. R., Veronica, G. M., Darmawan, I. D. G. N. B., & Wicaksono, W. (2023) · Psympathic Jurnal ilmiah Psikologi · doi:10.15575/psy.v10i1.18158 · Cited by 6
Spjeldnæs, K., & Karlsen, F. (2023) · Media Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/01634437231191361 · Cited by 3
“The capacity to immerse oneself and keep on focusing diminishes when multitasking (Firth et al., 2019; Lupinacci, 2021; Terranova, 2012).”
BackgroundValues-Based Education for a Better World
Toomey, R. (2023) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24420-9_2 · Cited by 3
Dampak Penggunaan Teknologi Internet terhadap Perkembangan Kognitif dan Perilaku Anak dalam Keluarga
Regiani, E., Dwiputri, F. A., Amaliyah, S., & Herlambang, Y. T. (2023) · Indo-MathEdu Intellectuals Journal · doi:10.54373/imeij.v4i3.666 · Cited by 3
Kassie, S. A. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1356232 · Cited by 3
Effects of Customizable Intelligent VR Shopping Assistant on Shopping for Stress Relief
Wong, A., Zhao, Y., & Baghaei, N. (2024) · IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct) · doi:10.1109/ismar-adjunct64951.2024.00069 · Cited by 3
“Research has shown that an immersive virtual reality experience can elicit similar behaviors from users compared to its real-life counterparts [9, 36].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Firth, J., Torous, J., Stubbs, B., Firth, J. A., Steiner, G. Z., Smith, L., Alvarez‐Jimenez, M., Gleeson, J., Vancampfort, D., Armitage, C. J., & Sarris, J.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- National Health Service (GB)
- Western Sydney University (AU)
- Anglia Ruskin University (GB)
- Centre for Youth Mental Health University of Melbourne Melbourne Australia
- KU Leuven (BE)
- Manchester Academic Health Science Centre (GB)
- ORCID
- Venue
- World Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2019-05-06
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 119-129
- ISSN
- 1723-8617 (ISSN-L)
- 2051-5545
- PMC
- PMC6502424
- OpenAlex
- W2944285188
- Cited by
- 694
- References
- 135
- Citations by year
- 2026: 136 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 98 · 2023: 145 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 16
- FWCI
- 108.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- World Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Anglia Ruskin Research Online (Anglia Ruskin University) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (APP1125000, ICA-CL-2017-03-001, NIHR-INF-0685)
- NIHR Greater Manchester Patient Safety Translational Research Centre
- Patient Safety Translational Research Centre
- Manchester Biomedical Research Centre
- Medical Research Council
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/S009752/1)
- National Health and Medical Research Council (1102532, 1125000, 1082934)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Communication › Digital Media and Philosophy
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Keywords
- internet use, cognitive change, attention, divided attention, sustained attention, memory, online information, social cognition, self-concept, self-esteem, online social interaction
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