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The “online brain”: how the Internet may be changing our cognition
Open accessAbstract
The impact of the Internet across multiple aspects of modern society is clear. However, the influence that it may have on our brain structure and functioning remains a central topic of investigation. Here we draw on recent psychological, psychiatric and neuroimaging findings to examine several key hypotheses on how the Internet may be changing our cognition. Specifically, we explore how unique features of the online world may be influencing: a) attentional capacities, as the constantly evolving stream of online information encourages our divided attention across multiple media sources, at the expense of sustained concentration; b) memory processes, as this vast and ubiquitous source of online information begins to shift the way we retrieve, store, and even value knowledge; and c) social cognition, as the ability for online social settings to resemble and evoke real‐world social processes creates a new interplay between the Internet and our social lives, including our self‐concepts and self‐esteem. Overall, the available evidence indicates that the Internet can produce both acute and sustained alterations in each of these areas of cognition, which may be reflected in changes in the brain. However, an emerging priority for future research is to determine the effects of extensive online media usage on cognitive development in youth, and examine how this may differ from cognitive outcomes and brain impact of uses of Internet in the elderly. We conclude by proposing how Internet research could be integrated into broader research settings to study how this unprecedented new facet of society can affect our cognition and the brain across the life course.
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“Moreover, students who exceed 2 hours of daily screen time on social media tend to exhibit poorer performance on cognitive assessments in comparison to those with restricted screen time (Firth, Torous, Stubbs, Steiner, Smith,2019).”
From SCROLLING AND SUSTAINED ATTENTION: HOW SOCIAL MEDIA INFLUENCE SUSTAINED ATTENTION OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS (2024) · cites this paper as Firth, Torous, Stubbs, Steiner, Smith,2019
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“Our findings are consistent with previous research indicating that excessive reliance on AI tools can negatively impact critical thinking skills.”
From AI Tools in Society: Impacts on Cognitive Offloading and the Future of Critical Thinking (2025) · cites this paper as Firth et al. [24]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Children who used digital tools for more than 2 h per day had lower scores on cognitive tests than those who used them less (Firth et al., 2019).”
From The impact of digital technology, social media, and artificial intelligence on cognitive functions: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Firth et al., 2019
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“Paradoxically, social media use is linked to social isolation (ie, a lack of social connections and quality relationships with others),21 which is associated with poor health outcomes and increased mortality.1”
From Brain health consequences of digital technology use (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
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“We have indeed transitioned now from the information age to the age of interruption (Firth et al., 2019).”
From The impact of digital technology, social media, and artificial intelligence on cognitive functions: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Firth et al., 2019
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“On the other hand, they highlight that the Internet is an unprecedented form of extended memory.”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Firth et al. (2019)
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“On the one hand, they summarize how the Internet is a major drain on attention in everyday life.”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Firth et al. (2019)
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“constant Internet usage may be affecting our cognitive and social processes, along with mental health and brain functioning 124 .”
From A meta-review of "lifestyle psychiatry": the role of exercise, smoking, diet and sleep in the prevention and treatment of mental disorders (2020) · cites this paper as [124]
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“engagement through the MyCHOIS–CommonGround website was associated with a higher level of ongoing engagement in out-patient mental health service compared to that of the control group”
From The role of shared decision-making in improving adherence to pharmacological treatments in patients with schizophrenia: A clinical review (2020) · cites this paper as [47]
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“although no significant differences were found in the adherence rate with antipsychotic medication”
From The role of shared decision-making in improving adherence to pharmacological treatments in patients with schizophrenia: A clinical review (2020) · cites this paper as [47]
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“Another noticeable advantage was the cost-effectiveness of the intervention which makes it particularly suitable for attaining long-term outcomes in patients with severe mental disorders [46–50]”
From The role of shared decision-making in improving adherence to pharmacological treatments in patients with schizophrenia: A clinical review (2020) · cites this paper as [47]
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McGorry, P. D., & Mei, C. (2021) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-050620-030405 · Cited by 38
Internet use, depression, and cognitive outcomes among Chinese adolescents
Zhou, M., & Ding, X. (2021) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22779 · Cited by 37
Sun, J.-T., Hu, B., Chen, T.-Q., Chen, Z., Shang, Y., Li, Y., Wang, R., & Wang, W. (2023) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-023-00762-w · Cited by 38
“…Lee et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2014; Loh & Kanai, 2016; Ma et al., 2019), cognitive problems (attention capacities, memory processes, and social cognition) (Firth et al., 2019), and psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder) (Jorgenson et al., 2016;…”
BackgroundKavaklı, M., & Ünal, G. (2021) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp.2021.105349 · Cited by 45
“For example, because online social environments resemble real-world social processes and these types of environments may affect individuals to become alerted through this way, social lives of these individuals, including self-concepts and self-esteem, may create a new interaction with the internet (Firth et al., 2019).”
BackgroundEye-tracking for the study of financial decision-making: A systematic review of the literature
Borozan, M., Cannito, L., & Palumbo, R. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbef.2022.100702 · Cited by 37
Journalism Ethics for the Algorithmic Era
Paik, S. (2023) · Digital Journalism · doi:10.1080/21670811.2023.2200195 · Cited by 56
“…2013), the outcome of the algorithmically-led content organization encourages readers to engage in behavior that is immediate and convenient (Firth et al. 2019). the same editor above noted that they practice constant content and comment moderation in order to keep the integrity of the…”
Digital tools for youth mental health
Uhlhaas, P. J., & Torous, J. B. (2019) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-019-0181-2 · Cited by 35
Self-citationTraining and education in digital psychiatry: A perspective from Asia‐Pacific region
Orsolini, L., Jatchavala, C., Noor, I. M., Ransing, R. S., Satake, Y., Shoib, S., Shah, B., Ullah, I., & Volpe, U. (2021) · Asia-Pacific Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/appy.12501 · Cited by 35
“Therefore, in the Indian sample there is a great disparity in terms of Internet and digital tools access, as already reported in previous studies (Andersson et al., 2019; Firth et al., 2019; Ransing et al., 2021; Shoib & Yasir Arafat, 2020b).”
ResultNetwork architectures supporting learnability
Zurn, P., & Bassett, D. S. (2020) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0323 · Cited by 31
Understanding the influence of digital technology on human cognitive functions: A narrative review
de Barros, E. C. (2024) · IBRO Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ibneur.2024.11.006 · Cited by 61
Cespón, M. T., & Lage, J. M. D. (2022) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/12297 · Cited by 43
“Thus, as multitasking is encouraged by digital technologies, more succinct formats are convenient to sustain attention (Baron, 2017; Cilliers, 2017; Firth et al., 2019; Llorca Abad, 2015).”
BackgroundMaftei, A., Merlici, I.-A., & Dănilă, O. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1062688 · Cited by 38
“Often, adolescents with a high level of cognitive involvement in social media use express solid beliefs about the importance of social media in their personal lives, constantly thinking about social media use (43).”
BackgroundWang, R., Qamruzzaman, M., & Karim, S. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30142 · Cited by 39
“Firth, Torous [65] also found that the availability of information on the internet has contributed significantly to advancing innovation and creativity.”
BackgroundRetractedHoare, E., Werneck, A. O., Stubbs, B., Firth, J., Collins, S., Corder, K., & van Sluijs, E. M. F. (2020) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.11381 · Cited by 30
Self-citationPengpid, S., & Peltzer, K. (2020) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294120968502 · Cited by 31
“In addition, sedentary behaviour in this adolescent population is likely to include social media use, which can lead to social isolation (Firth et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMedical Education e-Professionalism (MEeP) framework; from conception to development
Guraya, S. S., Frcs, S. Y. G., Harkin, D. W., Ryan, Á., Nor, M. Z. M., & Yusoff, M. S. B. (2021) · Medical Education Online · doi:10.1080/10872981.2021.1983926 · Cited by 30
“Continuous presence in the digital environment has been shown to exhaust cognitive reserves and undermine neuro-cognitive outcomes leading to impaired impulse-control and decision-making [47].”
BackgroundStarlink satellite project impact on the Internet provider service in emerging economies
Shaengchart, Y., & Kraiwanit, T. (2023) · Research in Globalization · doi:10.1016/j.resglo.2023.100132 · Cited by 30
Zhu, Q., Li, X., Dong, Y., Chang, P., & Fan, M. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878629 · Cited by 30
“Yet the very operations now being delegated—reasoning, synthesis, evaluation, and creative generation—are the higher-order processes through which learning and professional expertise are built (Firth et al., 2019,?).”
Li, Y., Liu, C., Sun, J., Zhang, J., Li, X., & Zhang, Z. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/59684 · Cited by 32
“The continuous influx of online information and multimedia streams with multiple presentation modes during the use of ICTs encourages older adults to engage in attention-switching and simultaneous attention to multiple tasks, thereby enhancing the processing speed of cognitive resources [29].”
Unlocking the brain secrets of social media through neuroscience
Montag, C., Marciano, L., Schulz, P. J., & Becker, B. (2023) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2023.09.005 · Cited by 28
Benedetto, L., Rollo, S., Cafeo, A., Rosa, G. D., Pino, R., Gagliano, A., Germanò, E., & Ingrassia, M. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21040386 · Cited by 40
“Researchers agree that the advent of new technologies has fundamentally altered individuals’ interactions with their environment (e.g., [22,23]).”
BackgroundChen, B., Yang, C., Ren, S.-S., Li, P.-G., & Zhao, J. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/57301 · Cited by 34
“The study by Firth et al [17] suggested that the use of the internet may influence cognitive function through 3 key factors: attentional capacity, memory processes, and social cognition.”
Dagher, M., Farchakh, Y., Barbar, S., Haddad, C., Akel, M., Hallit, S. R., & Obeïd, S. (2021) · Head & Face Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13005-021-00260-8 · Cited by 34
Menculini, G., Tortorella, A. A. V., Albert, U., Carmassi, C., Carrà, G., Cirulli, F., Dell’Osso, B. M., Luciano, M., Nanni, M. G., Pompili, M., et al. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11111413 · Cited by 28
Chiang, M., Yen, C., & Chen, H. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su141811352 · Cited by 34
Kiss, H., Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Piko, B. F. (2019) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104612 · Cited by 35
Family-based therapy for internet addiction among adolescents and young adults: A meta-analysis
Wang, H., Li, X., Lok, K.-I., Meng, C., Tan, Y., Lee, U. M., Lei, L. S. M., & Chan, N. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2024.00015 · Cited by 28
“Moreover, it is associated with changes to brain regions responsible for attention, impulse control, emotional competence and much more (Firth et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2023).”
Backgroundvon Hoyer, J. F., Hoppe, A., Kammerer, Y., Otto, C. A., Pardi, G., Rokicki, M., Yu, R., Dietze, S., Ewerth, R., & Holtz, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.827748 · Cited by 28
“In both cases, it is also essential that the respective knowledge is updated on a regular basis: Just as technology advances rapidly, usage patterns and cognitive processes on the side of the users are also evolving as a consequence of adaptation processes (Firth et al., 2019).”
BackgroundShaengchart, Y., Kraiwanit, T., & Butcharoen, S. (2023) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102279 · Cited by 27
Problematic Smartphone Use on Mental Health: A Systematic Mapping Study and Taxonomy
Schroeder, G. L., Heckler, W. F., Francisco, R., & Barbosa, J. L. V. (2021) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2022.2149422 · Cited by 30
“In addition to the bene fi ts of these new smartphone features, there are concerns regarding this hyper-connected experience (Firth et al. 2019).”
BackgroundAllan, S., Ward, T., Eisner, E., Bell, I., Cella, M., Chaudhry, I. B., Torous, J. B., Kiran, T., Kabir, T., Priyam, A., et al. (2024) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbae031 · Cited by 26
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Firth, J., Torous, J., Stubbs, B., Firth, J. A., Steiner, G. Z., Smith, L., Alvarez‐Jimenez, M., Gleeson, J., Vancampfort, D., Armitage, C. J., & Sarris, J.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- National Health Service (GB)
- Western Sydney University (AU)
- Anglia Ruskin University (GB)
- Centre for Youth Mental Health University of Melbourne Melbourne Australia
- KU Leuven (BE)
- Manchester Academic Health Science Centre (GB)
- ORCID
- Venue
- World Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2019-05-06
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 119-129
- ISSN
- 1723-8617 (ISSN-L)
- 2051-5545
- PMC
- PMC6502424
- OpenAlex
- W2944285188
- Cited by
- 694
- References
- 135
- Citations by year
- 2026: 136 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 98 · 2023: 145 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 16
- FWCI
- 108.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- World Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Anglia Ruskin Research Online (Anglia Ruskin University) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (APP1125000, ICA-CL-2017-03-001, NIHR-INF-0685)
- NIHR Greater Manchester Patient Safety Translational Research Centre
- Patient Safety Translational Research Centre
- Manchester Biomedical Research Centre
- Medical Research Council
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/S009752/1)
- National Health and Medical Research Council (1102532, 1125000, 1082934)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Communication › Digital Media and Philosophy
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Keywords
- internet use, cognitive change, attention, divided attention, sustained attention, memory, online information, social cognition, self-concept, self-esteem, online social interaction
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