Tool use by wild and captive elephants
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Animal tool use: current definitions and an updated comprehensive catalog
Bentley‐Condit, V. K., & Smith (2010) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/000579509x12512865686555 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
The Conceptual mind: new directions in the study of concepts
Margolis, E., & Laurence, S. (2016) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.193092 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Tool selectivity in a non-primate, the New Caledonian crow ( Corvus moneduloides )
Chappell, J., & Kacelnik, A. (2002) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-002-0130-2 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
“African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Hart et al. 2001), woodpecker finches (Cactospiza pallida) (Millikan and Bowman 1967; Tebbich et al.”
BackgroundShoshani, J., Kupsky, W. J., & Marchant, G. H. (2006) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.03.016 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
“Discussions for [17,60] and against [91] this uestion have been reported in the literature.”
BackgroundWhy Do Dolphins Carry Sponges?
Mann, J., Sargeant, B. L., Watson-Capps, J. J., et al. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003868 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“01% of nonprimate mammalian species [3], 10 primate species [4,5] and 30 bird species [6].”
BackgroundPlastic animals in cages: behavioural flexibility and responses to captivity
Mason, G. J., Burn, C. C., Dallaire, J. A., Kroshko, J., Kinkaid, H. M., & Jeschke, J. M. (2013) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.02.002 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Cognitive behaviour in Asian elephants: use and modification of branches for fly switching
Hart, B. L., Hart, L. A., McCoy, M., & Sarath, C. R. (2001) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1815 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
‘Captivity bias’ in animal tool use and its implications for the evolution of hominin technology
Haslam, M. (2013) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0421 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“While primates have formed a significant focus of research into tool use, the same effect of more frequent and diverse tool use in captivity has been noted in animals as varied as elephants [31], keas [32], small tree finches [33], rooks [34], cockatoos [35], rodents such as degus [36] and naked mole rats [37] and eve…”
BackgroundInsightful problem solving in an Asian elephant
Foerder, P., Galloway, M., Barthel, T., Moore, D. E., & Reiss, D. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023251 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“Cognitive studies have demonstrated that elephants are capable of visual symbol discrimination and long term memory [5], means-end recognition [6], relative quantity judgment [7], mirror self-recognition [8], tool use [3], tool manufacture [9], and an understanding of cooperation [10].”
BackgroundInfluentialElephant cognition in primate perspective
Byrne, R. W., Bates, L. A., & Moss, C. J. (2009) · Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews · doi:10.3819/ccbr.2009.40009 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“…use multiple tool types for up to six different functions , mostly in the context of body care such as scratching and removing ticks, with one report of throwing mud during a competitive encounter with a rhino over access to a waterhole (Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993; Wickler & Seibt, 1997).”
MethodSayers, K., & Lovejoy, C. O. (2008) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/523675 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Hunt, G. R., & Gray, R. D. (2004) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-003-0200-0 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Woodpecker finches (Cactospiza pallida) (Eibel-Eibesfeldt 1961; Tebbich et al. 2002) and African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephus maximus) elephants ( Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Hart et al. 2001) commonly use tools, but data on their manufacture of tools in the wild is lacking.”
BackgroundElephants evolved strategies reducing the biomechanical complexity of their trunk
Dagenais, P., Hensman, S., Haechler, V., & Milinkovitch, M. C. (2021) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.029 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
The manual skills and cognition that lie behind hominid tool use
Byrne, R. W. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511542299.005 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“In many cases, the available evidence constitutes only a single reported instance of a particular individual making a particular tool, and provides little detail on method (e.g. Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993).”
MethodPlotnik, J. M., de Waal, F. Β. Μ., Moore, D., & Reiss, D. (2009) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.20257 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Tool-use and tool manufacture has also been documented in the Asian elephant, where branches are used, stripped, and further manipulated to swat insects [Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska, 1993].”
BackgroundElephant behavior toward the dead: A review and insights from field observations
Goldenberg, S. Z., & Wittemyer, G. (2019) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-019-00766-5 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Hemoglobin concentration of high-altitude Tibetans and Bolivian Aymara
Beall, C. M., Brittenham, G. M., Strohl, K. P., Blangero, J., Williams‐Blangero, S., Goldstein, M. C., Decker, M. J., Vargas, E., Villena, M., Soria, R., et al. (1998) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199807)106:3 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Preliminary observations of tool use in captive hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus)
Borsari, A., & Ottoni, E. B. (2004) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-004-0221-3 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“…to alter more efficiently the form, position or condition of another object, another organism, or the user itself when it holds or carries the tool during or just prior to use and is responsible for the proper and effective orientation of the tool (Beck 1980 in Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993).”
Hand Preferences in New World Primates
Hook, M. A., & Rogers, L. J. (2012) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/c4ds39 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Object manipulation to obtain a food reward in hoolock gibbons, Bunopithecus hoolock
Cunningham, C. L., Anderson, J. R., & Mootnick, A. R. (2006) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.05.013 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Elephants, Loxodonta africana and Elephus maximus, are known to throw objects at humans and other individuals and use sticks to scratch parts of the body (Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska 1993; Wickler & Seibt 1997) and Asian elephants use and modify branches for fly switching (Hart et al. 2001).”
BackgroundHUNTING TECHNIQUES AND TOOL USE BY NORTH AMERICAN BADGERS PREYING ON RICHARDSON'S GROUND SQUIRRELS
Michener, G. R. (2004) · Journal of Mammalogy · doi:10.1644/bns-102 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Beck’s definitions, which continue to be widely applied (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Fragaszy and Adams-Curtis 1991; van Schaik et al. 1999), encompass use of tools for foraging.”
BackgroundBioinspiration and Biomimetic Art in Robotic Grippers
Nguyen, V. P., Dhyan, S. B., Mai, V., Han, B. S., & Chow, W. T. (2023) · Micromachines · doi:10.3390/mi14091772 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
A zebrafish and mouse model for selective pruritus via direct activation of TRPA1
Esancy, K., Condon, L. F., Feng, J., et al. (2018) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.32036 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Such scratching behaviors have previously been documented in animals from a variety of taxa (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska, 1993; Huber et al., 2008; Deecke, 2012; Green and Mattson, 2003; Delius, 1988).”
BackgroundUsing an Innovation Arena to compare wild-caught and laboratory Goffin’s cockatoos
Rößler, T., Mioduszewska, B., O’Hara, M., Huber, L., Prawiradilaga, D. M., & Auersperg, A. M. I. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-65223-6 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Elephants and algorithms: a review of the current and future role of AI in elephant monitoring
Brickson, L. L., Zhang, L., Vollrath, F. W., Douglas‐Hamilton, I., & Titus, A. (2023) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2023.0367 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“They possess unique genetic and physiological features [1], exhibit high-levels of individual cognitive and emotional intelligence [2, 3, 4], maintain complex social behaviors and structures [5, 6, 7, 8, 9], serve as keystone species in their respective ecosystems [10, 11, 12], are highly valued by…”
BackgroundMiller, A. K., Hensman, M. C., Hensman, S., Schultz, K., Reid, P., Shore, M., Brown, J. S., Furton, K. G., & Lee, S. J. (2015) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2015.08.003 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Who needs a brain? Slime moulds, behavioural ecology and minimal cognition
Smith‐Ferguson, J., & Beekman, M. (2019) · Adaptive Behavior · doi:10.1177/1059712319826537 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“The trunk is also a very dextrous limb, which allows elephants a frequency and diversity of tool-use not found in any other non-primate mammal (Beck, 1980; Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993).”
BackgroundNew Caledonian crows use tools for non-foraging activities
Wimpenny, J. H., Weir, A. A. S., & Kacelnik, A. (2010) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-010-0366-1 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Hohmann and Fruth 2003; van Schaik et al. 2003; Whiten et al. 1999)—but as yet, this ‘multi-context’ tool use has not been reported in non-mammals.”
BackgroundCaptive jays exhibit reduced problem-solving performance compared to wild conspecifics
McCune, K. B., Jablonski, P. G., Lee, S., & Ha, J. C. (2019) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.181311 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“In both of these situations, researchers should take care to address the developmental or situational confounds that could explain performance but that may not occur in the natural environment [9,52].”
BackgroundA Tool for Every Job: Assessing the Need for a Universal Definition of Tool Use
Crain, B. J., Giray, T., & Abramson, C. I. (2013) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2013.26.04.03 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Martin, F., & Niemitz, C. (2003) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/0735-7036.117.4.371 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Bee dances, bird songs, monkey calls, and cetacean sonar: Is speech unique?
Liska, J. (1993) · Western Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/10570319309374428 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationElephants as an animal model for self-domestication
Raviv, L., Jacobson, S. L., Plotnik, J. M., Bowman, J. D., Lynch, V. J., & Benítez‐Burraco, A. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2208607120 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“In addition, elephants display tool use, which is another significant marker of cultural evolution (270, 271).”
BackgroundGenomic inferences from Afrotheria and the evolution of elephants
Roca, A. L., & O’Brien, S. J. (2005) · Current Opinion in Genetics & Development · doi:10.1016/j.gde.2005.09.014 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Shuster, G., & Sherman, P. W. (1998) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s100710050009 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Among the latter, regular use of tools occurs in sea otters ( Enhydra lutris, Riedman 1990), elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephus maximus, Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993 ), several primates (Visalberghi 1990), especially chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes, Goodall 1970, 1986) and, of course, humans.”
BackgroundKeeping Circus Elephants Temporarily in Paddocks - The Effects on Their Behaviour
Schmid, J. (1995) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600017504 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The Asian elephants-driver partnership: the drivers' perspective
Hart, L. A. (1994) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/0168-1591(94)90070-1 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Is painting by elephants in zoos as enriching as we are led to believe?
English, M., Kaplan, G., & Rogers, L. J. (2014) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.471 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“The tool-using aspect of painting could, therefore, be stimulating to a species that uses tools in the natural environment (Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993; Hart & Hart, 1994; Shoshani, 1997).”
BackgroundGrief Functions as an Honest Indicator of Commitment
Winegard, B., Reynolds, T. A., Baumeister, R. F., Winegard, B. M., & Maner, J. K. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314521016 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“The same logic may explain the solicitous behavior of elephants toward their deceased (Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993).”
BackgroundExploring the role of individual learning in animal tool-use
Bandini, E., & Tennie, C. (2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.9877 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Penndorf, J., & Aplin, L. M. (2020) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.07.001 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Initial findings on visual acuity thresholds in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
Shyan‐Norwalt, M. R., Peterson, J., Milankow, B., Staggs, T. E., & Dale, R. (2009) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.20259 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
New Caledonian Crows Rapidly Solve a Collaborative Problem without Cooperative Cognition
Jelbert, S. A., Singh, P., Gray, R. D., & Taylor, A. H. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0133253 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“However, in terms of the ability to understand that conspecifics can be used as social tools, this ability has been most clearly identified in species that are not only highly social [32–35] (although see orangutans [36]), but also show sophisticated tool behaviors in the wild, such as the use of natural materials for…”
BackgroundSynergy Goes to War: A Bioeconomic Theory of Collective Violence
Corning, P. A. (2007) · Journal of Bioeconomics · doi:10.1007/s10818-007-9017-2 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Aimed Object‐throwing by a Wild African Elephant in an Interspecific Encounter
Wickler, W., & Seibt, U. (1997) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1997.tb00152.x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Theory of Mind and Insight in Chimpanzees, Elephants, and Other Animals?
Nissani, M. (2004) · Comparative Vertebrate Cognition · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8913-0_7 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“There are likewise many reliable accounts of elephants hurling objects ( Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska, 1993; Wickler and Seibt, 1997).”
BackgroundMethodLöffler, N., Fiebig, J., Mulch, A., Tütken, T., Schmidt, B., Bajnai, D., Conrad, A. C., Wacker, U., & Böttcher, M. (2019) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2019.03.002 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
A new addition to the toolbox: stone tool use in blonde capuchin monkeys (Sapajus flavius)
Geovana Cristina Batista de, L. I. M. A., de Lacerda, J. C., Taynor, R., et al. (2024) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-024-01143-7 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Additionally, other species such as birds (Emery 2021; Tebbich and Bshary 2004), elephants (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Hart et al. 2001), and aquatic animals (Bizzozzero et al. 2019; Mann and Patterson 2013) demonstrate a propensity for tool use.”
Lestel, D., & Grundmann, E. (1999) · Social Science Information · doi:10.1177/053901899038003002 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Robot tool behavior: a developmental approach to autonomous tool use
Arkin, R. C., & Stoytchev, A. (2007) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University) · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Necessity, Unpredictability and Opportunity
Lee, P. C., & Moura, A. C. D. A. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800648-1.00011-5 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The Co‐Emergence of the Self and Autobiographical Memory: An Adaptive View of Early Memory
Howe, M. L. (2013) · doi:10.1002/9781118597705.ch23 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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Pierce, J. (2013) · Journal of Bioethical Inquiry · doi:10.1007/s11673-013-9480-5 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“See, especially, Preston and de Waal (2002), Bekoff and Pierce (2009), and de Waal (2009).”
BackgroundKharlamova, A. S., Saveliev, S. V., Kurtova, A. I., et al. (2014) · Quaternary International · doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.09.073 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Falótico, T. (2006) · doi:10.11606/d.47.2006.tde-26072006-120932 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Elefantes já foram observados utilizando galhos para remover ectoparasitas, para alcançar fontes de alimento distantes e para limpar as orelhas (Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993; Hart & Hart, 1994).”
BackgroundHighfill, L. E., Spencer, J. M., Fad, O., & Arnold, A. M. (2016) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2016.29.00.12 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Revisiting Russell’s troodontid: autecology, physiology, and speculative tool use1
Varricchio, D. J., Hogan, J. D., & Freimuth, W. J. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences · doi:10.1139/cjes-2020-0184 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Social manipulation in nonhuman primates: Cognitive and motivational determinants
Völter, C. J., Rossano, F., & Call, J. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.008 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Asian elephants acquire inaccessible food by blowing
Mizuno, K., Irie, N., Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, M., & Kutsukake, N. (2016) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-015-0929-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Additionally, they are familiar with manipulating the act of blowing, as they commonly use this technique for self-comfort (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993) and acoustic communication (Olson 2004), which might underpin their skilful use of breath.”
MethodTool-use in a display behaviour by Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber)
Thomsen, L. R., Campbell, R. D., & Rosell, F. (2007) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-007-0075-6 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Tools are used by non-human animals mainly as a means to obtain food (Beck 1980), but also seen in agonistic displays in for instance apes (Tuttle 1986) and elephants (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993).”
BackgroundAnalogous laterality in trunk movements in captive African elephants: A pilot study
Lefeuvre, M., Gouat, P., Mulot, B., Cornette, R., & Pouydebat, E. (2021) · Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1080/1357650x.2021.1999253 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Kaufmann, L. V., Becker, R., Ochs, A. G., et al. (2023) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.076 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Dog Stick Chewing: An Overlooked Instance of Tool Use?
Brooks, J., & Yamamoto, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577100 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Predation of a Bat by American Crows, Corvus brachyrhynchos
Lefevre, K. L. (2005) · The Canadian Field-Naturalist · doi:10.22621/cfn.v119i3.156 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Increasing the Brain’s Capacity: Neocortex, New Neurons, and Hemispheric Specialization
Rogers, L. J. (2004) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8913-0_9 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Hope, S. F., Willgohs, K. R., Dittakul, S., & Plotnik, J. M. (2025) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/s13420-024-00655-y · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In the wild, both African and Asian elephants have been observed using tools (Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993; Hart & Hart, 1994).”
Martina, C., Cowlishaw, G., & Carter, A. J. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230810 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“, captive animals often demonstrate greater diversity in tool use [27,28].”
BackgroundRogers, L. J. (1995) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cognitive Abilities in Elephants
Bates, L. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108131797.003 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sensorized objects used to quantitatively study distal grasping in the African elephant
Preti, M. L., & Beccai, L. (2023) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2023.107657 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Evolution and Development of Brain Asymmetry, and its Relevance to Language, Tool, and Consciousness
Rogers, L. J. (2012) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/c48594 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Social cognition in non-primates
Bshary, R., Salwiczek, L. H., & Wickler, W. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568308.013.0008 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Possible Tool Use by Beavers, Castor canadensis, in a Northern Ontario Watershed
Barnes, D. M. (2005) · The Canadian Field-Naturalist · doi:10.22621/cfn.v119i3.157 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Over the years, researchers have documented the use of tools in insects (Wilson 1975), birds (Lack 1947; Chisholm 1954; van Lawick-Goodall and van Lawick-Goodall 1966; Morse 1968; van Lawick-Goodall 1970; Anderson 1989; Marks and Hall 1992), and mammals (Kortland 1962; van LawickGoodall 1968; van…”
BackgroundInsightful Problem Solving in an Asian Elephant
Foerder, P., Galloway, M., Barthel, T., Moore, D. E., & Reiss, D. (2012) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e598052013-054 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Do Asian elephants plan for mutually-exclusive outcomes?
Hope, S. F., Dittakul, S., Yindee, M., Angkawanish, T., & Plotnik, J. M. (2025) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-025-02009-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…(Greco et al. 2013; Bar-rett and Benson-Amram 2021; Jacobson et al. 2022, 2023) and insightful (Foerder et al. 2011) problem-solving, tool-use (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Hart and Hart 1994; Hart et al. 2001; Foerder et al. 2011; Barrett and Benson-Amram 2020), and…”
Lacinak, A. M. (2024) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani14060923 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tool-Use in Wild Bottlenose Dolphins
Mann, J., & Sargeant, B. L. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-373553-9.00268-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Cognitive Abilities of Wild Animals
Mehrkam, L. R. (2019) · doi:10.1002/9781118968543.ch2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Multifunctional Fluidic Units for Emergent, Responsive Robotic Behaviors
Mousa, M. A., Comoretto, A., Overvelde, J. T. B., et al. (2025) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202510298 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Morasso, P. (2025) · Biomimetics · doi:10.3390/biomimetics10010021 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Functionality in Tool Use in Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
LeFauve, M. K., & Margulis, S. W. (2015) · Animal Behavior and Cognition · doi:10.12966/abc.02.08.2015 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“These include, for example, invertebrates (Mather, 1994), birds (Bird & Emery, 2009) and non-primate mammals (Bauer, 2001; Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993; Hall & Schaller, 1964; Mann & Patterson, 2013; Thompson et al., 2007).”
Jacobson, S. L., & Plotnik, J. M. (2019) · doi:10.1002/9781118968543.oth6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Water-hose tool use and showering behavior by Asian elephants
Urban, L., Becker, R., Ochs, A. G., et al. (2024) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2024.10.017 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Intelligence and embodiment: A statistical mechanics approach
Chinea, A., & Korutcheva, E. (2013) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2013.01.007 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Elephants – Studying Cognition in the African Savannah
Bates, L. A. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108333191.010 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Observations Regarding the Cerutti Mastodon
Sutton, M. Q., Parkinson, J. A., & Rosen, M. D. (2019) · PaleoAmerica · doi:10.1080/20555563.2019.1589409 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
““Tool use” in elephants has not been well studied, but elephants have also been documented modifying branches to use as fly switches and for scratching (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Hart et al. 2001).”
BackgroundThe assessment of stress in captive juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta Africana)
Stead, S. K. (2000) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A comparison of tool-use flexibility between captive chimpanzees and bonobos
Bandini, E., Harrison, R. A., Hrubesch, C., & Forss, S. (2026) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.251950 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Homo Sapiens — Homo Socious: A Comparative Analysis of Human Mind and Kind
Høgh‐Olesen, H. (2010) · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-05001-4_9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Innovation Arena: A Method for Comparing Innovative Problem-Solving Across Groups
Rößler, T., Mioduszewska, B., O’Hara, M., Huber, L., Prawiradilaga, D. M., & Auersperg, A. M. I. (2022) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/63026-v · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Liow, L., & Howard, D. (2024) · Frontiers for Young Minds · doi:10.3389/frym.2024.1341887 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Corning, P. A. (2008) · Cosmos and history · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Innovation Arena: A Method for Comparing Innovative Problem-Solving Across Groups
Rößler, T., Mioduszewska, B., O’Hara, M., Huber, L., Prawiradilaga, D. M., & Auersperg, A. M. I. (2022) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/63026 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Video-documentation of true and borderline tool use by wild American black bears
Reynolds‐Hogland, M. J., Ramsey, A. B., Muench, C., et al. (2023) · Ursus · doi:10.2192/ursus-d-22-00003r1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Some tool use behaviors include the acquisition of an object like a stick for physical maintenance (e.g., Asian elephants [ Elephas maximus ]; Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993), whereas other tool use behaviors include tool manufacture, which requires active modification of an object before…”
Worsley, H. K. (2018) · University of Salford Institutional Repository (University of Salford)
Weaver, A. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_2024-1
(2004) · Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.editionsmsh.7121
- Authors
- Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S., & Liska, J.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Venue
- Animal Behaviour
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1993-08
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 209-219
- ISSN
- 0003-3472 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2040227738
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 2.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Animal Behaviour (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Keywords
- tool use, elephants, Loxodonta africana, Asian elephant, captive elephants, wild elephants, ectoparasites, thermoregulation, large mammals, behavioral adaptation
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