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Search Engine Bias and the Demise of Search Engine Utopianism
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“Although users tend to select among the first results returned by the search engine (56), the interface enables them to browse many alternative results.”
From The impact of generative artificial intelligence on socioeconomic inequalities and policy making (2024) · cites this paper as [56]
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Yeung, K. (2017) · Information, Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2016.1186713 · Cited by 868
“…as Eric Goldman, argue that the algorithmic manipulation of general search engine results need not concern us because the efficient functioning of markets will ensure that alternative search engines will emerge to provide algorithmic evaluations that better meet individual needs (Goldman, 2006).”
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Bozdag, E. (2013) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-013-9321-6 · Cited by 649
“For instance search engines make manual adjustments of a web publisher's overall rating or modify search results presented in response to particular keyword searches (Goldman 2005).”
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BackgroundThe impact of generative artificial intelligence on socioeconomic inequalities and policy making
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“Goldman (2005) notes that biases in search results against competitors could also lead to antitrust concerns for Google, even in the presence of substantial competition in the advertising market.”
BackgroundThe Politics of Search: A Decade Retrospective
Granka, L. A. (2010) · The Information Society · doi:10.1080/01972243.2010.511560 · Cited by 177
“On a theoretical level, content bias and diversity are legitimate and important issues and have been addressed from a policy perspective (Gasser 2006; Goldman 2006; Grimmelman 2007).”
BackgroundThe seventeen theoretical constructs of information searching and information retrieval
Jansen, B. J. J., & Rieh, S. Y. (2010) · Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.21358 · Cited by 142
“Similarly, several researchers have commented on the inherent biases of search engines (e.g., Goldman, 2006; Introna & Nissenbaum, 2000).”
BackgroundThe Debate on the Moral Responsibilities of Online Service Providers
Taddeo, M., & Floridi, L. (2016) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-015-9734-1 · Cited by 141
“OSPs’ editorial role is also analysed in Goldman (2006).”
BackgroundMethodCoverage of emerging technologies: A comparison between print and online media
Cacciatore, M., Anderson, A. A., Choi, D., Brossard, D., Scheufele, D., Liang, X., Ladwig, P. J., Xenos, M., & Dudo, A. (2012) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444812439061 · Cited by 119
“In other words, just because a person can search for multiple viewpoints about an issue, he or she may only realistically run across certain themes, due in part to editorial bias imposed on search engine results (Goldman, 2008).”
BackgroundModelling opinion dynamics in the age of algorithmic personalisation
Perra, N., & Rocha, L. E. C. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-43830-2 · Cited by 139
Beyond the Bubble: Assessing the Diversity of Political Search Results
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Dörk, M., Carpendale, S., & Williamson, C. L. (2011) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/1978942.1979124 · Cited by 107
“For example, search can be seen as an engineering challenge to optimize precision and recall, yet it is important to realize that rankings can also have embedded values with social or political ramifications [23].”
BackgroundLawless: the secret rules that govern our digital livesPreprint
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Through the Google Goggles: Sociopolitical Bias in Search Engine Design
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“…research has examined various aspects of online searching, such as search technology (Brin and Page, 1998), search retrieval (Jansen et al., 2007), search politics (Introna and Nissenbaum, 2000), search quality (Taylor, 2013), social impact (Halavais, 2008) and legal implications (Goldman, 2006).”
BackgroundFairness Perceptions of Artificial Intelligence: A Review and Path Forward
Narayanan, D., Nagpal, M., McGuire, J., Schweitzer, S., & Cremer, D. D. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2210890 · Cited by 99
“For example, users of search engines have expressed concerns about biased and discriminatory search results (cf. Goldman, 2005; Noble, 2013); users of chatbots and other such AI-based service tools are concerned about the lack of interpersonal respect and care (cf. Barnett et al., 2021); and users…”
BackgroundBrowsing with Alexa: interrogating the impact of voice assistants as web interfaces
Natale, S., & Cooke, H. (2021) · Media, Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/0163443720983295 · Cited by 76
“Although users rarely move beyond the first page of a search engine’s results (Goldman, 2008), the interface still enables browsing into a large number of results.”
BackgroundCompetition and antitrust in Internet markets
Haucap, J., & Stühmeier, T. (2016) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9780857939852.00017 · Cited by 76
“This search bias allegation (see, e.g., Goldman, 2006; Ammori and Pelican, 2012; Edelman, 2011; Crane, 2011) has – by and large – been the key of the antitrust investigations against Google (see FTC 2013, European Commission, 2015).”
BackgroundThe Liability of Internet Intermediaries
Riordan, J. (2016) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198719779.001.0001 · Cited by 69
The History of the Internet Search Engine: Navigational Media and the Traffic Commodity
Couvering, E. V. (2008) · Information science and knowledge management · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-75829-7_11 · Cited by 65
“Source: Author analysis Data on ISP rank and subscriber numbers from Goldman (2006) and reflect Q1 2006 status.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPartisan search behavior and Google results in the 2018 U.S. midterm elections
Trielli, D., & Diakopoulos, N. A. (2020) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2020.1764605 · Cited by 61
“Even by establishing ‘relevance’ as a key factor, search engine companies impact the distribution of results (Goldman, 2008).”
BackgroundUnkel, J., & Haim, M. (2019) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439319881634 · Cited by 59
“However, one may argue that generating bias—that is, introducing rules, systematically weighting certain factors over others and thus preferring some items—is the “core” concept of a search engine (Lewandowski, 2017, p. 67; see also Goldman, 2008).”
BackgroundThe Use and Misuse of Biomedical Data: Is Bigger Really Better?
Hoffman, S., & Podgurski, A. (2013) · American Journal of Law & Medicine · doi:10.1177/009885881303900401 · Cited by 60
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Olteanu, A., Garcia-Gathright, J. I., de Rijke, M., Ekstrand, M. D., Roegiest, A., Lipani, A., Beutel, A., Olteanu, A., Lučić, A., Stoica, A.-A., et al. (2019) · ACM SIGIR Forum · doi:10.1145/3458553.3458556 · Cited by 54
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“These algorithms can exhibit skew in the information that they cover [Gerhart 2004; Vaughan and Thelwall 2004; Goldman 2006] and in how they decide to order their search results [Mowshowitz and Kawaguchi 2002a, 2002b].”
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“Because of the structure of search algorithms, the most prominent cancer blogs are those that have connections to mainstream media or high traffic sites, news or broadcast media (Butler 2000; Goldman 2006).”
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Gezi̇ci, G., Lipani, A., Saygın, Y., & Yılmaz, E. (2021) · Information Retrieval · doi:10.1007/s10791-020-09386-w · Cited by 45
“These statistics indicate that search engines replaced traditional broadcast media and have become amajor source of information B Gizem Gezici gizemgezici@sabanciuniv.edu 1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 Department of Computer Science, University College London,…”
BackgroundInfluentialWhite, R. W. (2014) · Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.23128 · Cited by 45
“That research has focused on topically skewed result sets (Fortunato, Flammini, Menczer, & Vespignani, 2006; Goldman, 2006), or the impact of rank position, captions, or domain preferences on search-result selection (Ieong, Mishra, Sadikov, & Zhang, 2012; Joachims et al., 2007; Yue, Patel, &…”
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“However, search engine ranking algorithms can exhibit biases in the information that they cover [Gerhart 2004; Vaughan and Thelwall 2004; Goldman 2006] and how they choose to order their results [Mowshowitz and Kawaguchi 2002a, 2002b], have limited access to information about a searcher s…”
BackgroundWho are interested in online science simulations? Tracking a trend of digital divide in Internet use
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Goodin, R. E. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192888204.001.0001 · Cited by 25
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BackgroundImproving search ranking of geospatial data based on deep learning using user behavior data
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BackgroundSearch engine predilection towards news media providers
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“On one hand, it has been argued that, since search engines are media companies then they will invariably make“editorial” decisions in order to tailor the content for their users [3].”
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“12 However, while new technologies may alleviate some concern (such as reinforcement of popular sites), no technology in sight is likely to cure the problem of targeted manipulation.”
BackgroundNegotiating use, norm and authority in online language forums
Reyes, A., & Bonnin, J. E. (2017) · Current Issues in Language Planning · doi:10.1080/14664208.2016.1220280 · Cited by 11
“In this sense, Google shows the most popular and frequent visited-sites before less popular sites, thus contributing to the success of the more visited ones (Goldman, 2008).”
BackgroundThe space between us: considering online media for interreligious dialogue
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“Scholars have shown the power algorithms have in shaping the information we are exposed to (Introna and Nissenbaum 2000; Diaz 2008; Goldman 2006; Halavais 2017).”
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“Therefore, algorithmic personalization of online search engines tends to work to reinforce, rather than alter or correct, preexisting attitudes [30, 31].”
BackgroundVertical Integration and Antitrust in Search Markets
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BackgroundCanadian public libraries and search engines: barriers to visibility
Dickinson, Z., & Smit, M. (2016) · Aslib Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1108/ajim-09-2015-0147 · Cited by 10
Russo, L., & Russo, S. (2020) · Medicine Health Care and Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s11019-020-09940-9 · Cited by 10
“However, it has been contended that the danger of a biased selection does not necessarily raise issues (Goldman 2008), and it can even be considered beneficial to users (Blanke 2005).”
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Muddiman, A. (2013) · Journal of Information Technology & Politics · doi:10.1080/19331681.2012.707440 · Cited by 9
“Thus scholars within this paradigm have critiqued search engines operating within the market paradigm because results may include mainstream Web pages at the expense of smaller sites containing important information for citizens (Goldman, 2008; Introna & Nissenbaum, 2000; Van Couvering, 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialResearch on consumers’ protection in advantageous operation of big data brokers
Ying-zhi, N., & Han, X. (2018) · Cluster Computing · doi:10.1007/s10586-018-1837-4 · Cited by 9
“They can change the order and display of search results to encourage users to click more ads [33].”
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Zhang, D. (2020) · The Journal of Communication and Media Studies · doi:10.18848/2470-9247/cgp/v05i02/1-19 · Cited by 10
“Search bias refers to a situation where the search results systematically favor certain types of content over others (Goldman 2008).”
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Joo, J., & Kärkkäinen, K. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2005.10430 · Cited by 9
“Scholars have discussed and found present biases in online media such as skewed search results (Goldman, 2008) or gender difference in STEM career ads (Lambrecht and Tucker, 2019), yet little has been known about mechanisms or origins of such biases.”
BackgroundWissen im Zeitalter von Google, Fake News und alternativen Fakten
Zoglauer, T. (2020) · Ars digitalis · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-27852-6_4 · Cited by 8
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Güzel, M., & ÖZMEN, K. (2018) · Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.31123/akil.401011 · Cited by 8
Empirical study of load time factor in search engine ranking
Marszałkowski, J., Marszałkowski, J. M., & Drozdowski, M. (2014) · Journal of Web Engineering · doi:10.5555/2638636.2638642 · Cited by 8
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Control search rankings, control the world: what is a good search engine?
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“It may be countered that inferring user intentions can be inaccurate (and paternalistic), and risks introducing biases from the system [32].”
Fair‐y Tales: An analysis of children’s books about sun safety
McCormack, L., Dzuali, F., Tappel, A. C., & Huang, J. T. (2020) · Pediatric Dermatology · doi:10.1111/pde.14387 · Cited by 7
The Mereology of Digital Copyright
Burk, D. L. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9789-8_7 · Cited by 7
“Increased access to such digitized works has heightened the need for robust systems that can identify and index online resources, in order to allow users to locate and access the new wealth of digitized materials in what amounts to a global virtual library ( Goldman, 2006 ).”
BackgroundNatale, S. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190080365.003.0004 · Cited by 13
Mottos and Ethical Statements of Internet-Based Organizations
Oravec, J. A. (2014) · International Journal of Civic Engagement and Social Change · doi:10.4018/ijcesc.2014040103 · Cited by 7
Kerssens, N. (2017) · Internet Histories · doi:10.1080/24701475.2017.1337666 · Cited by 7
“…have challenged assumptions about engines as neutral and objective information intermediaries, revealing how they incorporate biases (Diaz, 2008; Goldman, 2006; Introna & Nissenbaum, 2000; Jiang, 2014; Mowshowitz & Kawaguchi, 2002); actively produce information and knowledge through mechanisms…”
BackgroundDuclos, V. (2019) · Medicine Anthropology Theory · doi:10.17157/mat.6.3.660 · Cited by 10
Sender vs. recipient-orientated information systems revisited
MacFarlane, A., Missaoui, S., Makri, S., & Lopez, M. G. (2021) · Journal of Documentation · doi:10.1108/jd-10-2020-0177 · Cited by 9
Infodemiology of Alcohol Use in Hong Kong Mentioned on Blogs: Infoveillance Study
Chan, K.-L. L., Ho, S. Y., & Lam, T. (2013) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.2180 · Cited by 6
Political Conflicts around the Internet in Russia: The Case of Yandex.Novosti
Daucé, F. (2017) · Laboratorium Russian Review of Social Research · doi:10.25285/2078-1938-2017-9-2-112-132 · Cited by 9
Singh, I., Naci, H., Miller, J. E., Caplan, A. L., & Cipriani, A. (2020) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30413-x · Cited by 6
“Algorithms have also been criticised for perpetuating other biases found in science, including racial, ethnic and gender biases.(6) The ‘black box’ of the machine-learning algorithm means that clinicians cannot judge the strength or applicability of the evidence that is provided to inform decisions in the clinic.”
BackgroundBias in Text Generative Open AI
Devisetti, S. A. (2024) · Indian Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Neural Networking · doi:10.54105/ijainn.b1084.04020224 · Cited by 5
Page Ranking Refinement Using Fuzzy Sets and Logic.
Laughlin, A. J., Olson, J., Simpson, D., & Inoue, A. (2011) · Cited by 4
Users’ Perception of Search-Engine Biases and Satisfaction
Han, B., Shah, C. S., & Saelid, D. (2021) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-78818-6_3 · Cited by 4
Olteanu, A., Garcia-Gathright, J., de Rijke, M., & Ekstrand, M. D. (2019) · Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval · doi:10.1145/3331184.3331644 · Cited by 13
“More recent empirical evidence shows, for instance, that there are gaps in access to information across communities, in part due to the information needs of certain communities being less supported than those of others—often the more dominant communities [6, 9, 13, 14].”
BackgroundAlgorithmic logics of taste: Cultural taste and the Netflix recommender system
Gaw, F. (2019) · The Sydney eScholarship Repository (The University of Sydney) · Cited by 4
Analyzing the content emphasis of web search engines
Alam, M. A., & Downey, D. (2014) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/2600428.2609515 · Cited by 3
“Legal scholars have debated whether search engines should be regulated to ensure “neutrality” [3, 7].”
BackgroundEthical concerns of search technology: search engine bias
Pastierová, M. (2022) · ProInflow Časopis pro informační vědy · doi:10.5817/proin2022-2-9 · Cited by 3
“Don't Be Evil” and Beyond for High Tech Organizations
Oravec, J. A. (2018) · Advances in human and social aspects of technology book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-4197-4.ch013 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Goldman, E.
- Affiliations
- Santa Clara University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Goldman, E.
- ORCID
- Goldman, E.
- Venue
- Information Science and Knowledge Management
- Publisher
- Springer Berlin Heidelberg
- Published
- 2008
- Pages
- 121-133
- ISSN
- 1568-1300 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1670552626
- Cited by
- 166
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 18.45
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- papers.ssrn.com
- Locations
- Information science and knowledge management (publishedVersion)
- Santa Clara Law Digital Commons (Santa Clara University) (submittedVersion)
- bepress Legal Repository (submittedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Information Retrieval and Search Behavior
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Media Influence and Politics
- Keywords
- search engine bias, search engine optimization, personalized search, search engine regulation
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