The chemical logic of a minimum protocell
Open accessAbstract
Traditional schemes for the origin of cellular life on earth generally suppose that the chance assembly of polymer synthesis systems was the initial event, followed by incorporation into a membrane-enclosed volume to form the earliest cells. Here we discuss an alternative system consisting of replicating membrane vesicles, which we define as minimum protocells. These consist of vesicular bilayer membranes that self-assemble from relatively rare organic amphiphiles present in the prebiotic environment. If some of the amphiphiles are primitive pigment molecules asymmetrically oriented in the bilayer, light energy can be captured in the form of electrochemical ion gradients. This energy could then be used to convert relatively common precursor molecules into membrane amphiphiles, thereby providing an initial photosynthetic growth process, as well as an appropriate microenvironment for incorporation and evolution of polymer synthesis systems.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
GARD shows conformity to the continuity principle that puts the burden of proof on any theory that requires discontinuities.
“It shows conformity to the continuity principle that puts the burden of proof on any theory that requires discontinuities [104].”
From Systems protobiology: origin of life in lipid catalytic networks (2018) · cites this paper as [104]
The passage labeled Abstract defines the continuity principle and explicitly says that it puts the burden of proof on theories requiring discontinuities. It discusses the authors’ minimum-protocell model, not GARD, so it does not establish that GARD conforms to the principle. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMolecular components for self-replication are achieved when there is phase separation from the environment that can concentrate the needed substrates within a given domain.
“This is achieved when there is phase separation from the environment [143,161,162] that can concentrate the needed substrates within a given domain.”
From Fundamental constraints to the logic of living systems (2024) · cites this paper as [161]
In the composomal state, GARD heterogeneous vesicles are protocells, significantly less minimal than the homogeneous vesicles alluded to in [104].
“This leads to the bold but inevitable conclusion that in certain cases, namely in the composomal state, GARD heterogeneous vesicles are protocells, significantly less minimal than the homogeneous vesicles alluded to in [104].”
From Systems protobiology: origin of life in lipid catalytic networks (2018) · cites this paper as [104]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Westheimer, F. H. (1987) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2434996 · Cited by 1,711 · see citing works
Molecular mechanisms for proton transport in membranes.
Nagle, J. F., & Morowitz, H. J. (1978) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.75.1.298 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
Self-citationLiposomes from ionic, single-chain amphiphiles
Hargreaves, W. R., & Deamer, D. W. (1978) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/bi00611a014 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Nature of Physical Reality
Margenau, H., & Lindsay, R. B. (1951) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/1.1932712 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Permeability of lipid bilayers to water and ionic solutes
Deamer, D. W., & Bramhall, J. S. (1986) · Chemistry and Physics of Lipids · doi:10.1016/0009-3084(86)90069-1 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Self-citationBoundary structures are formed by organic-components of the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite
Deamer, D. W. (1985) · Nature · doi:10.1038/317792a0 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Self-citationSynthesis of phospholipids and membranes in prebiotic conditions
Hargreaves, W. R., MULVIHILL, S. J., & Deamer, D. W. (1977) · Nature · doi:10.1038/266078a0 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Self-citationNichols, J. L., & Deamer, D. W. (1980) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.77.4.2038 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Self-citationA Theory of Macromolecular and Cellular Origins
Fox, S. W. (1965) · Nature · doi:10.1038/205328a0 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Murchison meteorite
Basile, B., Middleditch, B. S., & Oró, J. (1984) · Organic Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/0146-6380(84)90008-1 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Proton-hydroxide permeability of liposomes.
Deamer, D. W., & Nichols, J. L. (1983) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.80.1.165 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationPatrick, S. E. T. A., Bienvenüe, E., Moore, A. L., et al. (1985) · Nature · doi:10.1038/316653a0 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Role of lipids in prebiotic structures
Deamer, D. W., & Oro, J. A. (1980) · Biosystems · doi:10.1016/0303-2647(80)90014-3 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationKinetics of hydrogen ion diffusion across phospholipid vesicle membranes
Biegel, C. M., & Gould, J. M. (1981) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/bi00515a026 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Electrogenic H+/OH- movement across phospholipid vesicles measured by spin-labeled hydrophobic ions
Cafiso, D. S., & Hubbell, W. L. (1983) · Biophysical Journal · doi:10.1016/s0006-3495(83)84276-3 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Primeval cells: Possible energy-generating and cell-division mechanisms
Koch, A. L. (1985) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/bf02102359 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
PHOTOCHEMISTRY OF PORPHYRINS: A MODEL FOR THE ORIGIN OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS*
Mercer-Smith, J. A., & Mauzerall, D. C. (1984) · Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1111/j.1751-1097.1984.tb08197.x · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Light transducing membranes, structure, function, and evolution
Deamer, D. W. (1978) · Academic Press eBooks · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationProton semiconductors and energy transduction in biological systems
Morowitz, H. J. (1978) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1978.235.3.r99 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationSmith, T. F., & Morowitz, H. J. (1982) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/bf01734104 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationThermal Generation of Pteridines and Flavines from Amino Acid Mixtures
Heinz, B., Ried, W., & Dose, K. (1979) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English · doi:10.1002/anie.197904781 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationHeinz, B., & Ried, W. (1981) · Biosystems · doi:10.1016/0303-2647(81)90019-8 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationNonenzymatic photophosphorylation with visible light
Saygin, �. (1981) · Die Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/bf00398616 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Phase separation, charge separation and biogenesis
Morowitz, H. J. (1981) · Biosystems · doi:10.1016/0303-2647(81)90020-4 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationThe origin of life on the earth / Translated from the Russian by Ann Synge.
Опарин, А. И., & Synge, A. (1957) · Academic Press eBooks · doi:10.5962/bhl.title.4528 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Stepwise molecular evolution of bacterial photosynthetic energy conversion
Baltscheffsky, H. (1981) · Biosystems · doi:10.1016/0303-2647(81)90021-6 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- [1]1. Baltscheffsky, H. (ed.): 1981, 'Molecular Origins and Evolution of Photosynthesis', Biosystems 14, 1-147.
- [8]8. Deamer, D. W. and Nichols, J. W.: 1983, Proc. Natl. Acad. ScL USA 80, 165-168.
- [20]20. Nagle, J. F. and Morowitz, H. J.: 1978, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75, 298-302.
- [21]21. Nichols, J. W. and Deamer, D. W.: 1980, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77, 2038-2042.
- [23]23. Rashevsky, N.: 1938, Mathematical Biophysics, The University of Chicago Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Orgel, L. E. (1992) · Nature · doi:10.1038/358203a0 · Cited by 535 · see citing works
Compositional genomes: Prebiotic information transfer in mutually catalytic noncovalent assemblies
Segré, D., Ben-Eli, D., & Lancet, D. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.97.8.4112 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
A Universal Definition of Life: Autonomy and Open-Ended Evolution
Ruiz-Mirazo, K., Peretó, J., & Moreno, A. (2004) · Origins of life and evolution of the biosphere · doi:10.1023/b:orig.0000016440.53346.dc · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Lipid vesicles as possible intermediates in the origin of life
Luisi, P. L., Walde, P., & Oberholzer, T. (1999) · Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science · doi:10.1016/s1359-0294(99)00012-6 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
From self-assembled vesicles to protocells
Chen, I. A., & Walde, P. (2010) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a002170 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
The first living systems: a bioenergetic perspective
Deamer, D. W. (1997) · Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews · doi:10.1128/mmbr.61.2.239-261.1997 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Self-citationProduction of RNA by a polymerase protein encapsulated within phospholipid vesicles
Chakrabarti, A. C., Breaker, R. R., Joyce, G. F., & Deamer, D. W. (1994) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/bf00160400 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Self-citationSystems protobiology: origin of life in lipid catalytic networks
Lancet, D., Zidovetzki, R., & Markovitch, O. (2018) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2018.0159 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Evolution of oil droplets in a chemorobotic platform
Gutierrez, J. M. P., Hinkley, T., Taylor, J. W., Yanev, K., & Cronin, L. (2014) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms6571 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
The Role of Atmospheric Aerosols in the Origin Of Life
Tuck, A. (2002) · Surveys in Geophysics · doi:10.1023/a:1020123922767 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Acetyl Phosphate as a Primordial Energy Currency at the Origin of Life
Whicher, A., Camprubi, E., Pinna, S., Herschy, B., & Lane, N. (2018) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-018-9555-8 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Enabling conditions for ‘open-ended evolution’
Ruiz-Mirazo, K., Umerez, J., & Moreno, A. (2007) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-007-9076-8 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Vincent, L., Berg, M., Krismer, M., Saghafi, S. T., Cosby, J., Sankari, T., Vetsigian, K., Cleaves, H. J., & Baum, D. A. (2019) · Life · doi:10.3390/life9040080 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Insights into the self-reproduction of oleate vesicles
Stano, P., Wehrli, E., & Luisi, P. L. (2006) · Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter · doi:10.1088/0953-8984/18/33/s37 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Pohorille, A., & Wilson, M. A. (1995) · Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere · doi:10.1007/bf01581571 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Fundamental constraints to the logic of living systems
Solé, R., Kempes, C. P., Corominas-Murtra, B., De Domenico, M., Kolchinsky, A., Lachmann, M., Libby, E., Saavedra, S., Smith, E., & Wolpert, D. (2024) · Interface Focus · doi:10.1098/rsfs.2024.0010 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“This is achieved when there is phase separation from the environment [143,161,162] that can concentrate the needed substrates within a given domain.”
BackgroundUniversity of Messina, M., Damiano, L., Stano, P., & University of Salento, L. (2018) · Complex Systems · doi:10.25088/complexsystems.27.3.199 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
- Authors
- Morowitz, H. J., Heinz, B., & Deamer, D. W.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Goethe University Frankfurt (DE)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- ORCID
- Deamer, David W.
- Venue
- Origins of life and evolution of the biosphere
- Published
- 1988-09
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-287
- ISSN
- 0169-6149 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-0875
- OpenAlex
- W1979109821
- Cited by
- 239
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 8.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Origins and Evolution of Life
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA and protein synthesis mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Evolution and Genetic Dynamics
- Keywords
- origin of cellular life, membrane vesicles, amphiphilic molecules, prebiotic chemistry, photosynthesis, polymer synthesis
- MeSH terms
- Cells, Chemistry, Models, Theoretical, Chemical Phenomena
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
