Varieties of relaxation methods and their unique effects
Abstract
This paper reviews literature on specific effects of various relaxation methods, and of differences between varieties of two widely-used (and widely modified) methods: progressive relaxation and autogenic training. There is considerable evidence for modality-specific effects. Muscularly-oriented methods have the greatest effects on the musculoskeletal system, autonomically-oriented methods on the autonomic nervous system, etc. Modified methods of Jacobson's progressive relaxation technique have a greater cognitive and less muscular focus than Jacobson's original method, and Norris and Fahrion's autogenic feedback training de-emphasizes hypnotic components of autogenic training compared with Schultz and Luthe's original method. Hypotheses are presented regarding differential effects of these modifications on clinical outcome, on their appeal and usefulness to individuals with various personality profiles, and on possible negative side effects.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Through self-suggestion or guided imagery, athletes develop positive attitudes and systematically focus on bodily sensations, which alleviates cognitive anxiety and promotes psychological relaxation that subsequently supports physical relaxation.
“Through self-suggestion or guided imagery, athletes develop positive attitudes and systematically focus on bodily sensations, which alleviates cognitive anxiety and promotes psychological relaxation that subsequently supports physical relaxation [102–104].”
From The Effect of Different Psychological Interventions on Athletes' Competitive Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Bayesian Network Meta-Analysis. (2026) · cites this paper as [103]
Cites
Benson, H., Beary, J. F., & Carol, M. P. (1974) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00332747.1974.11023785 · Cited by 2,467 · see citing works
Jacobson, E. (1938) · The American Journal of the Medical Sciences · doi:10.1097/00000441-193811000-00037 · Cited by 962 · see citing works
Principles and Practice of Stress Management
Gauron, E. F. (1986) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.143.2.250-a · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Progressive Relaxation Training: A Manual for the Helping Professions
Bernstein, D. A., & Borkovec, T. D. (1973) · Cited by 578 · see citing works
A Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders
Hindman, R. K., & Beck, J. S. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Practice · doi:10.1097/pra.0000000000000087 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
Principles and practice of stress management
Lehrer, P. M., Woolfolk, R. L., Sime, W. E., & Barlow, D. H. (1984) · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Self-citationBiofeedback and meditation in the treatment of psychiatric illnesses
Glueck, B., & Stroebel, C. F. (1975) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0010-440x(75)80001-0 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Cognitive Psychophysiology: Principles of Covert Behavior
Cacioppo, J. T., & McGuigan, F. J. (1980) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422117 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Principles and practice of stress management
Rachman, S. (1985) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(85)90049-x · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Meditation as an Adjunct to Psychotherapy
Kutz, H., Leserman, J., Dorrington, C., Morrison, C. H., Borysenko, J. Z., & Benson, H. (2010) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000287881 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Stress management techniques: Are they all equivalent, or do they have specific effects?
Lehrer, P. M., Carr, R. E., Sargunaraj, D., & Woolfolk, R. L. (1994) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/bf01776735 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationThe psychophysiology of thinking
Giannitrapani, D. (1974) · Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/0013-4694(74)90217-x · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Relaxation and music therapies for asthma among patients prestabilized on asthma medication
Lehrer, P. M., Hochron, S. M., Mayne, T. J., Isenberg, S., Carlson, V., Lasoski, A. M., Gilchrist, J., Morales, D., & Rausch, L. (1994) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf01856879 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationHow to relax and how not to relax: A re-evaluation of the work of Edmund Jacobson—I
Lehrer, P. M. (1982) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(82)90063-8 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial phobia and social anxiety.
Hope, D. A., & Heimberg, R. G. (1993) · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Discrimination of muscle tension in chronic pain patients and healthy controls
Flor, H., Schugens, M. M., & Birbaumer, N. (1992) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/bf01000401 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Lehrer, P. M. (1978) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.46.3.389 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationLehrer, P. M. (1978) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.46.3.389 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationProgressive Relaxation: Abbreviated Methods
Bernstein, D. A., Carlson, C. R., & Schmidt, J. E. (2007) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · Cited by 58 · see citing works
New dimensions in Psychiatry: A World View
Shainberg, D. (1976) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1976.30.2.330 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
ANXIETY UNDER TOTAL CURARIZATION
Davison, G. C. (1966) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-196611000-00007 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Physiological mechanisms of temperature biofeedback
Freedman, R. R. (1991) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/bf01000184 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The Physiological Basis of Neuromuscular Relaxation
Gellhorn, E. (1958) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.1958.00030010392007 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The use of hypnosis and biofeedback procedures for essential hypertension
Friedman, H., & Taub, H. A. (1977) · International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00207147708415989 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
A Synchronous Systems Model for Health
JASNOSKI, M. L., & SCHWARTZ, G. E. R. (1985) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/000276485028004004 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Anxiety and tension control : a physiologic approach
Jacobson, E. (1964) · J.B. Lippincott eBooks · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Anxiety and Tension Control: A Physiologic Approach
Hoffman, M. (1964) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1964.03070160079034 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Lehrer, P. M., Batey, D. M., Woolfolk, R. L., Remde, A., & Garlick, T. (1988) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1988.tb01892.x · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationJacobson, E. (1911) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1412799 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Electrophysiology of Mental Activities and Introduction to The Psychological Process of Thinking
Jacobson, E. (1973) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-484050-8.50007-8 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Calm down: A guide to stress and tension control
McGuigan, F. J. (1981) · Cited by 18 · see citing works
(2012) · SpringerReference · doi:10.1007/springerreference_179973 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Hypnosis versus Autogenic Training: A Comparison
Krenz, E. W. (1986) · American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00029157.1986.10402655 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Improving recognition of respiratory sensations in healthy adults
Stout, C., Kotses, H., & Creer, T. L. (1993) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/bf01848109 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Course of Relaxation in Muscles of Athletes
Jacobson, E. (1936) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1415555 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Henkind, P. (1971) · American Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/0002-9394(71)90147-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Calm Down — A guide for stress and tension control
Hough, A. (1993) · Physiotherapy · doi:10.1016/s0031-9406(10)60750-x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Edmund Jacobson, M.D., Ph.D.: the founder of scientific relaxation.
Gessel, A. H. (1989) · PubMed · Cited by 7 · see citing works
1. On the Necessity of the Sense of Muscular Action to the full Exercise of the Organs of the Senses
Bell, C. (1845) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh · doi:10.1017/s0370164600039316 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A Note on Stimulus Control Shaping and One-Trial Learning in Two- and Three-Year-Old Children
Stoddard, L. T., Serna, R. W., & McIlvane, W. J. (1994) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395135 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 41 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Psychological skills training as a way to enhance an athlete's performance in high-intensity sports
Birrer, D., & Morgan, G. (2010) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01188.x · Cited by 342 · see citing works
“Indeed, relaxation techniques have their own unique effects (Lehrer, 1996), which should be considered.”
Stress and drug-cue-induced craving in opioid-dependent individuals in naltrexone treatment
Hyman, S. M., Fox, H., Hong, K.-I. A., Doebrick, C., & Sinha, R. (2007) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/1064-1297.15.2.134 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Other stress-reducing interventions, such as stress inoculation training (Meichenbaum, 1985), relaxation training (see Lehrer, 1996), and exercise (see Hays, 1999), may also help reduce stress-related craving and hyperarousal responses and improve naltrexone treatment outcomes.”
BackgroundRelaxation training methods for nurse managers in Hong Kong: a controlled study
Yung, P. M. B., Fung, M. Y., Chan, T. M. F., & Lau, B. W. K. (2004) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1445-8330.2004.00342.x · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Hashim, H. A., & Yusof, H. A. (2011) · Asian Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.5812/asjsm.34786 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Lehrer PM.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAcute effects of psychological relaxation techniques between two physical tasks
Pelka, M., Kölling, S., Ferrauti, A., Meyer, T., Pfeiffer, M., & Kellmann, M. (2016) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1161208 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“with a specific recovery method, that is dependent on the type of stress and one’s individual capacities (Davidson & Schwartz, 1976; Lehrer, 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialActivity Pacing Self-Management in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Kos, D., Eupen, I. V., Meirte, J., Cauwenbergh, D. V., Moorkens, G. H., Meeus, M., & Nijs, J. (2015) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2015.016287 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Participants were instructed how to apply stress management techniques, including Jacobson relaxation skills, Schultz relaxation skills, visualization, and other techniques, depending on their individual preferences for one or more of the techniques (Lehrer, 1996).”
MethodOzamiz-Etxebarria, N., Santamaría, M. D., Munitis, A. E., & Gorrotxategi, M. P. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02038 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“The training program consisted of four sessions led by a health psychologist with extensive experience in relaxation techniques (Lether, 1996; Lsalt and Kerr, 1997; Solomen and Aaron, 2015; Abuín, 2016).”
MethodKos, D., Duportail, M., Meirte, J., Meeus, M., D'hooghe, M. B., Nagels, G., Willekens, B. M. P., Meurrens, T., Ilsbroukx, S., & Nijs, J. (2016) · International Journal of Rehabilitation Research · doi:10.1097/mrr.0000000000000178 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“All rights reserved. etc., pending their individual preferences (Lehrer, 1996).”
BackgroundRelaxation techniques in sports: A systematic review on acute effects on performance
Pelka, M., Heidari, J., Ferrauti, A., Meyer, T., Pfeiffer, M., & Kellmann, M. (2016) · Performance Enhancement & Health · doi:10.1016/j.peh.2016.05.003 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Yung, P. M. B., French, P. W., & Leung, B. P. K. (2001) · Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery · doi:10.1054/ctnm.2000.0523 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the results supported the assertion that muscular-oriented relaxation procedures are more effective than cognition-oriented procedures in treating somatic problems (Lehrer 1996).”
BackgroundResultMasih, T., Dimmock, J. A., Epel, E. S., & Guelfi, K. J. (2019) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12179 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Ozamiz-Etxebarria, N., Santamaría, M. D., Munitis, A. E., & Gorrotxategi, M. P. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.609098 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Yung, P. M. B., & Keltner, A. A. (1996) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)00062-9 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Effects of Relaxation Exercises to Reduce Anxiety in Beginner Athletes
Jermaina, N., Kusmaedi, N., Mamun, A., Gaffar, V., Purnomo, E., & Marheni, E. (2022) · International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences · doi:10.13189/saj.2022.100618 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Effects of Viewing Cute Pictures on Quiet Eye Duration and Fine Motor Task Performance
Yoshikawa, N., Nittono, H., & Masaki, H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01565 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“, autogenic training; Schultz and Luthe, 1959) have been applied to prevent choking under pressure (Lehrer, 1996).”
BackgroundHashim, H. A., & Zainol, N. A. (2015) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2014.1002851 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“PMR consists of the sequential tensing and relaxation of individual muscles which may lead to a relaxation of the mind (Lehrer, 1996).”
BackgroundInitiating therapeutic relaxation in Britain: a twentieth-century strategy for health and wellbeing
Nathoo, A. (2016) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/palcomms.2016.43 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“He demarcated his teachings from that of the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz (1884–1970) who, at a similar time, was developing “Autogenic Training”—a relaxation technique based on visualization methods with clear yogic influences (Lehrer, 1996; Singleton, 2005).”
BackgroundCalidad de Vida y Cáncer de Mama: Efectos de una Intervención Cognitivo-Conductual
Garduño, C. G. (2010) · Revista Latinoamericana de Medicina Conductual / Latin American Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.5461/rlmc.v1.n1.08 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Yusof, H. A., & Hashim, H. A. (2011) · IJASS(International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences) · doi:10.24985/ijass.2011.23.1.183 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Nathoo, A. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198808640.013.22 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
McGrady, A. V. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-387-36899-x_8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hazlett‐Stevens, H., & Bernstein, D. A. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9781118470886.ch5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Mind-body approaches and chronic illness: Status of research
Riccio, C., Pliego, J., & Rae, W. (2016) · International Journal of School & Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/21683603.2016.1130544 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) is a technique used to teach children how to recognize and reduce tension in their muscles that is associated with pain, stress, and medical symptoms (Lehrer, 1996).”
BackgroundLi, L., Wang, J., Li, Q., & Fu, Q. (2026) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-026-01007-y · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Díaz-Martínez, A. M. (2003) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/1534650103002003004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Because Maria’s symptoms were consistent with a diagnosis of Generalized Anxiety Disorder, research indicated (Lehrer, 1996; Levin, 1989; Mandos, 1999; Sanderson, 1997) that relaxation techniques were effective to decrease autonomic arousal, and in turn, anxiety.”
BackgroundSchmaling, K. B., Lehrer, P. M., Feldman, J. M., & Giardino, N. D. (2003) · Handbook of Psychology · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0905 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationMeshram, K. (2016) · International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Die Originalform der Progressiven Relaxation von Edmund Jacobson
Derra, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54248-4_2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hartmann-Strauss, S. (2020) · Psychotherapie: Praxis · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-60311-6_2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Arousal Reduction Methods: Relaxation, Biofeedback, Meditation, and Hypnosis
Turpin, G., & Heap, M. (1998) · Comprehensive Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1016/b0080-4270(73)00191-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Freitas, S. (2013) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · doi:10.34626/qvxx-ts61
Wie kann ich die Motivation zum regelmäßigen Üben verbessern?
Derra, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54248-4_8
Derra, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54248-4_1
Strauß, S. (2025) · Psychotherapie: Praxis · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-71404-1_2
- Authors
- Lehrer, P. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lehrer, Paul M.
- ORCID
- Lehrer, Paul M.
- Venue
- International Journal of Stress Management
- Published
- 1996-01
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-15
- ISSN
- 1072-5245 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3424
- OpenAlex
- W2058016350
- Cited by
- 34
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 1.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Stress Management (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Keywords
- relaxation techniques, progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, autonomic nervous system, musculoskeletal effects, stress management, personality profiles
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
