Agar degradation by microorganisms and agar-degrading enzymes
Abstract
Agar is a mixture of heterogeneous galactans, mainly composed of 3,6-anhydro-L-galactoses (or L-galactose-6-sulfates) D-galactoses and L-galactoses (routinely in the forms of 3,6-anhydro-L-galactoses or L-galactose-6-sulfates) alternately linked by β-(1,4) and α-(1,3) linkages. It is a major component of the cell walls of red algae and has been used in a variety of laboratory and industrial applications, owing to its jellifying properties. Many microorganisms that can hydrolyze and metabolize agar as a carbon and energy source have been identified in seawater and marine sediments. Agarolytic microorganisms commonly produce agarases, which catalyze the hydrolysis of agar. Numerous agarases have been identified in microorganisms of various genera. They are classified according to their cleavage pattern into three types-α-agarase, β-agarase, and β-porphyranase. Although, in a broad sense, many other agarases are involved in complete hydrolysis of agar, most of those identified are β-agarases. In this article we review agarolytic microorganisms and their agar-hydrolyzing systems, covering β-agarases as well as α-agarases, α-neoagarobiose hydrolases, and β-porphyranases, with emphasis on the recent discoveries. We also present an overview of the biochemical and structural characteristics of the various types of agarases. Further, we summarize and compare the agar-hydrolyzing systems of two specific microorganisms: Gram-negative Saccharophagus degradans 2-40 and Gram-positive Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). We conclude with a brief discussion of the importance of agarases and their possible future application in producing oligosaccharides with various nutraceutical activities and in sustainably generating stock chemicals for biorefinement and bioenergy.
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The enzymatic breakdown of agarose is carried out by α-agarases and β-agarases, which hydrolyze agarose α-1,3 and β-1,4 linkages and produce agarobiose and neoagarobiose as final hydrolysis products, respectively.
“The enzymatic breakdown of agarose is carried out by α-agarases (EC 3.2.1.158)and β-agarases (EC 3.2.1.81),which hydrolyze agarose α-1,3 and β-1,4 linkages and produce agarobiose and neoagarobiose as final hydrolysis products, respectively (Table 1).”
From The Enzymatic Conversion of Major Algal and Cyanobacterial Carbohydrates to Bioethanol (2016) · cites this paper as Chi et al., 2012
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- Authors
- Chi, W.-J., Chang, Y.-K., & Hong, S.-K.
- Affiliations
- Myongji University (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Hong, Soon-Kwang
- Venue
- Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
- Published
- 2012-04-19
- Volume
- 94
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 917-930
- ISSN
- 0175-7598 (ISSN-L)
- 1432-0614
- OpenAlex
- W2048637284
- Cited by
- 262
- References
- 102
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 1.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biotechnology › Enzyme Production and Characterization
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Polysaccharides and Plant Cell Walls
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Polysaccharides Composition and Applications
- Keywords
- agar degradation, agarase, β-agarase, agar hydrolysis, Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2), oligosaccharide production, nutraceuticals, bioenergy, marine sediment
- MeSH terms
- Agar, Glycoside Hydrolases, Hydrolysis, Protein Conformation, Seawater, Geologic Sediments, Alteromonadaceae, Streptomyces coelicolor
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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