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Multiscale wolf predation risk for elk: does migration reduce risk?
Abstract
While migration is hypothesized to reduce predation risk for ungulates, there have been few direct empirical tests of this hypothesis. Furthermore, few studies examined multiscale predation risk avoidance by migrant ungulates, yet recent research reveals that predator-prey interactions occur at multiple scales. We test the predation risk reduction hypothesis at two spatial scales in a partially migratory elk (Cervus elaphus) population by comparing exposure of migrant and resident elk to wolf (Canis lupus) predation risk. We used GPS and VHF telemetry data collected from 67 migrant and 44 resident elk over the summers of 2002-2004 in and adjacent to Banff National Park (BNP), Canada. We used wolf GPS and VHF telemetry data to estimate predation risk as a function of the relative probability of wolf occurrence weighted by a spatial density model that adjusted for varying pack sizes. We validated the predation risk model using independent data on wolf-killed elk, and showed that combining wolf presence and spatial density best predicted where an elk was likely to be killed. Predation risk on summer ranges of migrant elk was reduced by 70% compared to within resident elk summer ranges. Because wolves avoided areas near high human activity, however, fine-scale selection by resident elk for areas near high human activity reduced their predation risk exposure to only 15% higher than migrants, a difference significant in only one of three summers. Finally, during actual migration, elk were exposed to 1.7 times more predation risk than residents, even though migration was rapid. Our results support the hypothesis that large-scale migrations can reduce predation. However, we also show that where small-scale spatial variation in predation risk exists, nonmigratory elk may equally reduce predation risk as effectively as migrants under some circumstances.
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“After arriving on high-elevation summer ranges, northern temperate migrants continue to benefit from high forage quality associated with cool weather and prolonged snowmelt, allowing them to attain higher body mass and pregnancy rates than their resident counterparts (Albon andLangvatn 1992, Hebblewhite andMerrill 2007).”
From Animal migration amid shifting patterns of phenology and predation: lessons from a Yellowstone elk herd (2013) · cites this paper as Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007
In the citing paper
“For instance, in the Serengeti Ecosystem, predation was found to be lower for migratory than for resident wildebeest (Sinclair 1984), and in Alberta, migratory elk reduced their wolf exposure by 70% in comparison with resident elk (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007).”
From Animal migration amid shifting patterns of phenology and predation: lessons from a Yellowstone elk herd (2013) · cites this paper as Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007
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Male-Biased Partial Migration in a Giraffe Population
Brown, M. B., & Bolger, D. T. (2020) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00524 · Cited by 30
“Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the emergence and maintenance of partial migration (Hebblewhite and Merrill, 2007; Chapman et al., 2011; Mysterud et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAdvances in biologging can identify nuanced energetic costs and gains in predators
English, H. M., Börger, L., Kane, A., & Ciuti, S. (2024) · Movement Ecology · doi:10.1186/s40462-024-00448-y · Cited by 32
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“At landscape scale, ungulates may try to reduce predation risk by avoiding areas and habitats associated with higher risk of predation through migratory movements, or movements within their seasonal ranges (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007, Laundr e et al. 2010).”
BackgroundM’soka, J., Creel, S., Becker, M. S., & Murdoch, J. D. (2017) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/aje.12398 · Cited by 25
A Foraging Cost of Migration for a Partially Migratory Cyprinid Fish
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BackgroundProudman, N. J., Churski, M., Bubnicki, J. W., Nilsson, J., & Kuijper, D. P. J. (2020) · Wildlife Research · doi:10.1071/wr20059 · Cited by 25
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“provide refugia [30–34].”
Influence of landscape characteristics on migration strategies of white-tailed deer
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BackgroundResultSelf-citationIntegrating population‐ and individual‐level information in a movement model of Yellowstone bison
Geremia, C., White, P. J. C., Hoeting, J. A., Wallen, R., Watson, F. G. R., Blanton, D. W., & Hobbs, N. T. (2014) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1890/13-0137.1 · Cited by 24
Fall supplemental feeding increases population growth rate of an endangered caribou herd
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“Caribou, like many other mountain ungulates ( Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007 ) are generally predator sensitive foragers ( Lima, 1998 ), trading off high quality foraging opportunities as vegetation greens up at lower elevations in order to reduce predation risk ( Bergerud, Butler & Miller, 1984 ;…”
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Berg, J., Reimer, J. R., Smolko, P., Bohm, H., Hebblewhite, M., & Merrill, E. H. (2021) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.22099 · Cited by 23
“We modeled predation risk to elk by wolves (wolf) based on the work of Hebblewhite and Merrill (2007) and by grizzly bears (bear) based on the work of Nielsen (2005; Method S3, available online in Supporting Information).”
MethodSelf-citationMobility of moose—comparing the effects of wolf predation risk, reproductive status, and seasonality
Wikenros, C., Balogh, G., Sand, H., Nicholson, K. L., & Månsson, J. (2016) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.2598 · Cited by 23
“Predation risk is the probability of being killed per unit time by the predator (Lima & Dill, 1990), but the mere presence of a predator could be equally important for predicting risk (Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007).”
Ecology of a widespread large omnivore, Homo sapiens, and its impacts on ecosystem processes
Root‐Bernstein, M., & Ladle, R. J. (2019) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.5049 · Cited by 24
“…strategies and diets, physiology, de‐ velopment, and social organization, such that the discovery of the importance of such variation is noteworthy and surprising (e.g., in animal ecology see Ford et al., 1997; Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007, 2009; Montgomery et al., 2018; Putman & Flueck, 2011).”
BackgroundEvaluating Domestic Sheep Survival with Different Breeds of Livestock Guardian Dogs
Kinka, D., & Young, J. K. (2019) · Rangeland Ecology & Management · doi:10.1016/j.rama.2019.07.002 · Cited by 22
“Predation risk is impacted by large carnivore presence and spatial density (Hebblewhite and Merrill, 2007).”
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“Behavioural patterns of predators typically develop in response to natural patterns of animal migration (e.g. caribou in Alaska, Furey et al., 2018; Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007; White et al., 2014).”
BackgroundDo American Dippers Obtain a Survival Benefit from Altitudinal Migration?
Green, D. J., Whitehorne, I. B. J., Middleton, H. A., & Morrissey, C. A. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125734 · Cited by 20
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“Furthermore, predators often avoid humans (Hebblewhite et al. 2005; Ordiz et al. 2011; Morrison et al. 2014; Jennings et al. 2016), lowering predation risk and creating refuges for prey in the areas that predators avoid (Hebblewhite & Merrill 2007; Schmidt & Kuijper 2015).”
BackgroundMerrill, E. H., Killeen, J., Pettit, J., Trottier, M., Martin, H., Berg, J., Bohm, H., Eggeman, S., & Hebblewhite, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2020.00269 · Cited by 19
“%) were low enough to avoid bias in the selection models (Hebblewhite and Merrill, 2007; Hebblewhite and Merrill, 2008).”
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Intense or Spatially Heterogeneous Predation Can Select against Prey Dispersal
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“This suggests that predation might have different effects on prey movements at various spatial scales, which is consistent with empirical observations in a wolf-elk system [37].”
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“Seasonally migratory prey is a widespread phenomenon (Fryxell and Sinclair 1988, Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007) that creates large temporal variation in resource availability between seasons making it challenging for predators to secure a regular year-round supply of food (Schmidt 2008, Nelson et…”
BackgroundLarge herbivores in a partially migratory population search for the ideal free home
Martin, H. W., Hebblewhite, M., & Merrill, E. H. (2022) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.3652 · Cited by 18
“For many species, this seasonal movement also reduces exposure to predation risk (Fryxell et al., 1988; Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007; McKinnon et al., 2010).”
Self-citationGroup dynamics of Yellowstone pronghorn
White, P. J. C., Gower, C. N., Davis, T. L., SHELDON, J. W., & White, J. R. (2012) · Journal of Mammalogy · doi:10.1644/10-mamm-a-257.1 · Cited by 18
“Similarly, trade-offs between predation risk and foraging differed between migrant strategies for elk (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007).”
BackgroundTo forage or flee: lessons from an elk migration near a protected area
Mikle, N. L., Graves, T. A., & Olexa, E. M. (2019) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.2693 · Cited by 18
The global geography of fish diadromy modes
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Contemporary evolution and genetic change of prey as a response to predator removal
Khater, M., Murariu, D., & Gras, R. (2014) · Ecological Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2014.02.005 · Cited by 20
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BackgroundEuropean eel Anguilla anguilla compromise speed for safety in the early marine spawning migration
Lennox, R. J., Økland, F., Mitamura, H., Cooke, S. J., & Thorstad, E. B. (2018) · ICES Journal of Marine Science · doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsy104 · Cited by 17
Synchronicity of movement paths of barren-ground caribou and tundra wolves
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“Considering predation as an external stimulus for movement response, researchers have reported a relationship between the distribution and movements of herbivores and areas of high predation risk (Johnson et al. 2002a; Fortin et al. 2005; Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007; Briand et al. 2009; Gervazi et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMigration dynamics of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in western Hudson Bay
Bohart, A. M., Lunn, N. J., Derocher, A. E., & McGeachy, D. (2020) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/araa140 · Cited by 14
Evaluating the summer landscapes of predation risk and forage quality for elk (Cervus canadensis)
Paterson, J. T., Proffitt, K., DeCesare, N., Gude, J., & Hebblewhite, M. (2022) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.9201 · Cited by 16
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“…also numerous benefits such as avoiding predation, gaining access to nutritious food resources, and reducing competition among individuals (Fryxell & Sinclair, 1988; Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007;Hebblewhite, Merrill & McDermid, 2008;Mysterud et al., 2011; Bischof et al., 2012; White et al., 2014).”
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Summer elk calf survival in a partially migratory population
Berg, J., Eacker, D. R., Hebblewhite, M., & Merrill, E. H. (2022) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.22330 · Cited by 15
Self-citationGreen‐up selection by red deer in heterogeneous, human‐dominated landscapes of Central Europe
Sigrist, B., Signer, C., Wellig, S. D., Özgül, A., Filli, F., Jenny, H., Thiel, D., Wirthner, S., & Graf, R. F. (2022) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.9048 · Cited by 14
“Predation can pose a risk to migrating animals, since exposure to predation risk has been shown to be 1.7 times higher during migration than for resident individuals (Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007).”
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Ganz, T. R., Bassing, S. B., DeVivo, M. T., Gardner, B., Kertson, B. N., Satterfield, L. C., Shipley, L. A., Turnock, B. Y., Walker, S. L., Abrahamson, D., et al. (2024) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1002/eap.3003 · Cited by 14
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“It is also documented that resident and migrant individuals may experience different trade-offs related to predation risk (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007).”
BackgroundMaladaptive migration behaviour in hybrids links to predator‐mediated ecological selection
Pärssinen, V., Hulthén, K., Brönmark, C., Skov, C., Brodersen, J., Baktoft, H., Chapman, B. B., Hansson, L., & Nilsson, P. A. (2020) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2656.13308 · Cited by 14
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Gower, C. N., Garrott, R. A., White, P. J., Watson, F. G. R., Cornish, S. S., & Becker, M. S. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/s1936-7961(08)00218-2 · Cited by 13
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“Another explanation for ungulate distributions includes reduced risk of predation [12–14], however, the interactions are complex and elk movements may not be linked to direct predation threats in all circumstances [15].”
BackgroundLandscapes of Anticipation of the Other: Ethno-Ethology in a Deer Hunting Landscape
Forssman, N., & Root‐Bernstein, M. (2018) · Journal of Ethnobiology · doi:10.2993/0278-0771-38.1.071 · Cited by 11
“Elk (Cervus canadensis) in North America (until recently considered to be the same species as European red deer) switch between migratory and resident strategies between years (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007, 2009).”
BackgroundResultCumulative effects of infrastructure and human disturbance: a case study with reindeer
Eftestøl, S., Tsegaye, D., Flydal, K., & Colman, J. E. (2021) · Landscape Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10980-021-01263-1 · Cited by 10
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BackgroundSpatial overlap of gray wolves and ungulate prey changes seasonally corresponding to prey migration
Wehr, N. H., Moore, S. A., Isaac, E. J., Kellner, K. F., Millspaugh, J. J., & Belant, J. L. (2024) · Movement Ecology · doi:10.1186/s40462-024-00466-w · Cited by 9
“Migratory elk ( Cervus canadensis ) in Yellowstone National Park, USA decreased predation risk by migrating but were about 1.7 times more likely to experience predation during migration, and 63% of migratory elk deaths occurred during or immediately before or after migration [21, 22].”
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Defining the predator landscape of northeastern British Columbia.
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Migration, movements, and survival in a partially migratory elk ( Cervus canadensis ) population
Poole, K. G., Lamb, C. T., Medcalf, S., & Amos, L. (2024) · Conservation Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/csp2.13128 · Cited by 8
“…but lower survival of migrant cows and calves compared with resident elk, largely a result of elevated grizzly bear predation during June migration (Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007), with resident elk forgoing high-quality food to reduce predation risk, mainly from wolves, by selecting areas close to…”
BackgroundMessinger, L. N., Stuber, E. F., Chizinski, C. J., & Fontaine, J. J. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222272 · Cited by 8
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“This approach assumes predation risk is driven by the relative abundance of coyotes, borne out in studies of other canids preying on ungulates (e.g., Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDiverse migration patterns and seasonal habitat use of Stone’s sheep (Ovis dalli stonei)
Enns, G. E., Jex, B. A., & Boyce, M. S. (2023) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.15215 · Cited by 7
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Moose and white‐tailed deer mortality peaks in fall and late winter
Wehr, N. H., Moore, S. A., Isaac, E. J., Kellner, K. F., Millspaugh, J. J., & Belant, J. L. (2024) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.22580 · Cited by 7
Integrating movement behaviours for intra-specific conservation: The caribou case
Hughes, M. M., Bourbon, C., Milanesi, P., Veitch, J. S. M., Deakin, S., Schwantje, H. M., Thacker, C., Pelletier, A., Polfus, J. L., Neuhaus, P., et al. (2024) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2024.110933 · Cited by 7
Mule Deer Habitat Selection Following Vegetation Thinning Treatments in New Mexico
Sorensen, G. E., Kramer, D. W., Cain, J. W., Taylor, C. A., Gipson, P. S., Wallace, M. C., Cox, R. D., & Ballard, W. B. (2020) · Wildlife Society Bulletin · doi:10.1002/wsb.1062 · Cited by 7
“In addition, mule deer use of developed areas has the potential to mitigate predation risk similar to that reported for elk (Cervus elaphus), moose (Alces alces), and white‐tailed deer (O. virginianus; Berger 2007, Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007, Kittle et al. 2008).”
BackgroundThe ecology and behaviour of pumas (Puma concolor) in northern California, U.S.A.
Allen, M. L. (2014) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17007643 · Cited by 7
MoveFormer: a Transformer-based model for step-selection animal movement modellingPreprint
Cífka, O., Chamaillé‐Jammes, S., & Antoine Liutkus, A. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.03.05.531080 · Cited by 7
Short-term effects of wildfire on Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep habitat ecology
Greene, L. (2010) · The Mathematics Enthusiast · Cited by 7
Reckin, R., & Todd, L. C. (2017) · Hunter Gatherer Research · doi:10.3828/hgr.2017.21 · Cited by 6
Predation risk effects on intense and routine vigilance of Burchell's zebra and blue wildebeest
Yiu, S. W., Keith, M., Karczmarski, L., & Parrini, F. (2021) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.01.008 · Cited by 6
Ross, A. K., Lawes, J. C., & Letnic, M. (2021) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/acv.12745 · Cited by 6
“Although predator exposure has been known to increase prey dispersal distances (e.g. Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007; Bestion et al., 2014), we found no evidence of this trend in our study.”
BackgroundMcIvor, G. E., Lee, V. E., & Thornton, A. (2022) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.08.006 · Cited by 6
Ding, J., Chang, Q., Ding, Y., Zhu, L., Liu, H., Jiang, Z., & Li, C. (2017) · Biological Rhythm Research · doi:10.1080/09291016.2016.1275396 · Cited by 6
Estimating ungulate migration corridors from sparse movement data
McKee, J. L., Fattebert, J., Aikens, E. O., Berg, J., Bergen, S., Cole, E. K., Copeland, H. E., Courtemanch, A. B., Dewey, S. R., Hurley, M. A., et al. (2024) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.4983 · Cited by 5
Diel timing of migration is not plastic in a migratory ungulate
Jakopak, R. P., Sawyer, H., LaSharr, T. N., Randall, J. E., Dwinnell, S. P. H., Fralick, G. L., & Monteith, K. L. (2022) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.07.008 · Cited by 5
MacAulay, K., Spilker, E. G., Berg, J., Hebblewhite, M., & Merrill, E. H. (2022) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.8589 · Cited by 4
“Wolf scats were associated with flat areas (Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007) and Summer range Mean Ppred Mean Pelk Mean PRscat Bear West 0.43 ± 0.13 0.14 ± 0.11 0.21 ± 0.14 YHT 0.24 ± 0.062 0.25 ± 0.11 0.20 ± 0.090 East 0.19 ± 0.049 0.25 ± 0.21 0.16 ± 0.13 Cougar West 0.58 ± 0.12 0.39 ± 0.18 0.24 ±…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationSpatio-Temporal Analysis of Game Harvests in Sweden
Lozano, J. E., Elofsson, K., Surry, Y., & Marbuah, G. (2023) · Environmental and Resource Economics · doi:10.1007/s10640-023-00770-w · Cited by 4
“…in period t − 1 divided by county area 0.0035 0.0063 0 0.0274 Effort (t − 1) Effort in period t − 1 divided by county area 1.0757 0.6923 0.2104 3.6429 County area Size of the county in squared kilometers 20,390 22,727 2,941 98,911 1 3 predation risk (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007; Cromsigt et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialNormandeau, J., Clair, C. C. S., Kutz, S. J., Hebblewhite, M., & Merrill, E. H. (2021) · Journal of Mammalogy · doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyab155 · Cited by 4
“Wolves (Canis lupus) are the leading cause of adult elk mortality in this population and predation risk at the Ya Ha Tinda is high (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007; Hebblewhite et al. 2018).”
Self-citationChapter 20 Elk Foraging Behavior
Gower, C. N., Garrott, R. A., & White, P. J. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/s1936-7961(08)00220-0 · Cited by 4
Is niche separation between wolves and cougars realized in the Rocky Mountains?
Krawchuk, K. E. (2014) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3h41jv9f · Cited by 4
“I did not find any strong selection differences for cougar and wolf use of anthropogenic features, consistent with previous studies showing both cougars and wolves avoid humans more during the day than night (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007; Robinson, Hebblewhite and Merrill 2010; Knopff et al. 2014).”
BackgroundResultHUMAN PREDATION RISK AND ELK BEHAVIOR IN HETEROGENEOUS LANDSCAPES
Cleveland, S. M. (2010) · The Mathematics Enthusiast · Cited by 4
López, A. B. G., Pelletier, M., & Discamps, E. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0285487 · Cited by 3
Thompson, C. J., Tatman, N. M., Farley, Z. J., Boyle, S. T., Greenleaf, A. R., & Cain, J. W. (2025) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2025.1613904 · Cited by 3
Life history characteristics and alarm calling in Australian arid-zone birds
Butler, N. E., Watson, S. J., & Peters, R. A. (2022) · Emu - Austral Ornithology · doi:10.1080/01584197.2022.2104735 · Cited by 3
“Studies on this interaction focus mainly on migratory ungulates, such as Elk (Cervus elaphus; e.g. Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007) and Moose (Alces alces; e.g. Singh et al. 2012).”
BackgroundDigging deeper: habitat selection within the home ranges of a threatened marsupial
Cornelsen, K. A., Elphinstone, A., & Jordan, N. R. (2024) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2024.03.010 · Cited by 4
“Most studies that use RSFs typically pool data across years (sometimes with a random effect; e.g. Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007; Walter et al., 2011; Vynne et al., 2011).”
Behavioral trade‐offs and multitasking by elk in relation to predation risk from Mexican gray wolves
Farley, Z. J., Thompson, C. J., Boyle, S. T., Tatman, N. M., & Cain, J. W. (2024) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.11383 · Cited by 3
“These results corroborate the RAH and highlight the ability of prey to alter their behavior to potentially mitigate the NCEs of predators.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSeasonal density‐dependence can select for partial migrants in migratory species
Liu, J., Zhang, Z., & Coulson, T. N. (2025) · Ecological Monographs · doi:10.1002/ecm.70009 · Cited by 3
(2009) · doi:10.1016/s1936-7961(08)00217-0 · Cited by 3
Kittle, A. M. (2014) · The Atrium (University of Guelph) · Cited by 3
Spatial ecology of recolonized elk in agricultural landscapes of the Northern Great Plains
Hughes, T. A., Nordeen, T. D., Meduna, L. R., Wilson, S. P., & Benson, J. F. (2025) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111315 · Cited by 3
Farr, J. J., Straughan, S. M., Larue, B., Meyer, T. K., Whittington, J., Watt, D., Hubbs, A. H., Merrill, E. H., & Hebblewhite, M. (2025) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.70375 · Cited by 2
“For example, elk avoid predation by foraging in open areas, and reductions in biomass of herbaceous areas may lead elk to increase use of areas with higher predation risk (e.g., conifer forests, shrublands; Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007).”
Self-citationApplication of Conservation and Veterinary Tools in the Management of Stray Wildlife in Zambia
Chama, L., Simuchimba, G., Luaba, K., Syampungani, S., Katampi, J., Phiri, D., & Mubemba, B. (2022) · Veterinary medicine and science · doi:10.5772/intechopen.107890 · Cited by 2
Hecker, L. J., Nielsen, S. E., & Edwards, M. A. (2024) · Mammal Research · doi:10.1007/s13364-024-00768-9 · Cited by 2
“Potential fitness benefits include acquisition of higher quality food (Middleton et al. 2018), predator and/or parasite avoidance (Hebblewhite and Merrill 2007; Mysterud et al. 2016), and access to mates (Wallace and Diller 2001).”
GRAY WOLVES (Canis lupus) MOVEMENT PATTERNS IN MANITOBA: IMPLICATIONS FOR WOLF MANAGEMENT PLANS
Scurrah, F. E. (2012) · VIUSpace (Vancouver Island University Library) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.32003.96805 · Cited by 2
Walton, Z. (2015) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 2
Areas Important for Ecological Connectivity Throughout CanadaPreprint
Pither, R., O’Brien, P., Brennan, A., Hirsh‐Pearson, K., & Bowman, J. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.12.14.472649 · Cited by 3
Distance, weather, and forage conditions drive timing of autumn migration in female mule deer
Anton, C. B., DeCesare, N. J., & Peterson, C. J. (2025) · Movement Ecology · doi:10.1186/s40462-025-00540-x · Cited by 1
“Perhaps, deer migrated early to minimize exposure to hunting risk on winter range private lands in some situations [e.g., 38] and that deer faced higher risk during the migration period, which is itself inherently risky [39–41].”
Reactions of roe deer to human disturbances and wolf predation in a Polish forest
Haidt, A., Gawryś, R., Szewczyk, M., Lipińska, K., & Lubińska, K. (2025) · Current Zoology · doi:10.1093/cz/zoaf059 · Cited by 1
“Hebblewhite and Merrill (2007) found that wolves alter elk migration patterns, with the magnitude of this effect depending on habitat availability and the seasonal dynamics of predator populations.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Hebblewhite, M., & Merrill, E. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Alberta (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Hebblewhite, Mark
- Venue
- Oecologia
- Published
- 2007-02-08
- Volume
- 152
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 377-387
- ISSN
- 0029-8549 (ISSN-L)
- 1432-1939
- OpenAlex
- W2010851808
- Cited by
- 238
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 8.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oecologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
- Keywords
- elk migration, red deer, wolf, predator-prey interactions, pack size, Banff National Park
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Deer, Population Dynamics, Predatory Behavior, Risk Factors, Wolves, Animal Migration
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