Marmoset prosociality is intentional
Open accessAbstract
Marmoset monkeys show high levels of proactive prosociality, a trait shared with humans, presumably because both species rely on allomaternal care. However, it is not clear whether the proximate regulation of this convergent trait is also similar, in particular with regard to intentionality, which is a defining characteristic of prosocial behavior in the human literature. The aim of this paper was to investigate whether marmoset monkeys’ prosociality fulfils the criteria of intentionality developed in primate communication research. The results show that marmoset prosocial behavior (i) has some degree of flexibility, since individuals can use multiple means to reach their goal and adjust them to specific conditions, (ii) depends on the presence of an audience, i.e. potential recipients (social use), and (iii) is goal-directed, because (a) it continues exactly until the putative goal is reached, and (b) individuals check back and look at/for their partner when their prosocial actions do not achieve the putative goal (i.e. if their actions don’t lead to the expected outcome, this elicits distinct reactions in the actor). These results suggest that marmoset prosociality is under some degree of voluntary, intentional control. They are in line with other findings that marmosets perceive each other as intentional agents, and only learn socially from actions that are perceived as intentional. The most parsimonious conclusion is, therefore, that prosocial behavior is fundamentally under voluntary control in marmosets, just as it is in humans, even though our more sophisticated cognitive abilities allow for a far more complex integration of prosociality into a broader variety of contexts and of behavioral goals.
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This type of interaction is sometimes referred to in the literature as proactive prosociality, and is also observed among primates in the form of allomaternal care, as well as in the behaviour of other animal groups.
“This type of interaction is sometimes referred to in the literature as proactive prosociality, and is also observed among primates in the form of allomaternal care, as well as in the behaviour of other animal groups [53,54].”
From Maynard Smith revisited: A multi-agent reinforcement learning approach to the coevolution of signalling behaviour (2025) · cites this paper as [53]
This phenomenon is observed both in the animal realm and within human behaviour, and this behaviour may be caused by a number of mechanisms.
“We observe this phenomenon both in the animal realm [53,54], and within human behaviour [55], and this behaviour may be caused by a number of mechanisms.”
From Maynard Smith revisited: A multi-agent reinforcement learning approach to the coevolution of signalling behaviour (2025) · cites this paper as [53]
Within animal behaviour, the alternative evolutionarily stable strategies can be equated to proactive prosociality, often observed during allomaternal care in primates.
“Within animal behaviour, this can be equated to proactive prosociality, often observed during allomaternal care in primates [53,55].”
From Maynard Smith revisited: A multi-agent reinforcement learning approach to the coevolution of signalling behaviour (2025) · cites this paper as [53]
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Self-citationMacmillan-Scott, O., & Musolesi, M. (2025) · PLOS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013302 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910626.003.0004 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910626.003.0007
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Introduction to Social Cognition
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Social behavior in primates and its neural correlates
Qi, G., & Chang, S. W. C. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-27380-3.00002-6
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Lefèvre, A., Singh, V. P., Tyree, T. J., Li, J., Duhamel, J., & Miller, C. T. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.10.17.683014
Comparative Game Theory: Bringing Ethology Back into Social Decision Neuroscience
Shi, W., Meisner, O. C., Jadi, M. P., Nandy, A. S., & Chang, S. W. C. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-02925-6_27
Ecological factors affecting prosociality in marmoset monkeys
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Albert, T. G., Schiel, N., Ramos, M. A., & Souto, A. (2026) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.70132
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Vizmathy, L., Téglás, E., & Gergely, G. (2026) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2026.106951
Animal consciousness – What does the term consciousness tell us when dealing with animals?
Ehret, G. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-29258-3.00023-9
- Authors
- Burkart, J. M., & van Schaik, C. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Burkart, Judith M.
- ORCID
- Burkart, Judith M.
- Venue
- Animal Cognition
- Published
- 2020-02-27
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 581-594
- ISSN
- 1435-9448 (ISSN-L)
- 1435-9456
- PMC
- PMC7181450
- OpenAlex
- W3006706190
- Cited by
- 54
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 6.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Animal Cognition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (This work was supported by the Swiss N projects 310030-13083 and 105312-114107)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Keywords
- marmoset monkey, prosocial behavior, intentionality, allomaternal care, goal-directed behavior, social cognition, audience effects, social learning, intentional agents, primate communication, convergent evolution
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Behavior, Animal, Callithrix, Cooperative Behavior, Humans, Motivation, Social Behavior
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