Robotics cyber security: vulnerabilities, attacks, countermeasures, and recommendations

In the paper

“robots were used to counter the Improvized Explosive Device (IED) threat, especially in Iraq and Afghanistan [59].”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Countermeasures section states that Talon bomb-disposal robots were used to inspect suspected IEDs and that more than a hundred were in use in Iraq and Afghanistan. It also reports Army use of PackBot to clear bombs, supporting the cited sentence’s claim that robots were used against the IED threat. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites [59] Wilson, C.: Improvised explosive devices in Iraq: effects and countermeasures. In: CRS Report for Congress, Library of Congress Washington DC Congressional Research Service (2005)

In the paper

“France used them in Mali, Somalia, and Nigeria [70, 71] against the Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL) and Al-Qaeda operatives, and other terrorist factions (i.e. Boko Haram, Al-Shabab).”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The ISR section (p. 10) discusses UAVs and UGVs generally, while the Abstract (p. 1) recommends deploying military robots in northeast Nigeria. Searches for France, Mali, Somalia, and the named militant groups found no passage reporting that French forces deployed those vehicles in the stated countries against those groups. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [70] Abiodun, T.F., Taofeek, C.R.: Unending war on boko haram terror in northeast Nigeria and the need for deployment of military robots or autonomous weapons systems to complement military operations. Journal DOI 6(6) (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Not checked yetcites [71] Westerheijden, V.R.: Remote warfare comes home: an inquiry in the Dutch government’s development of discourse on airstrikes and drones between 1998–2020. Master’s thesis, Utrecht University (2020)

In the paper

“robotics became included in the naval warfare domain as part of autonomous boats, ships, submarines, torpedoes and as part of Naval Mine Counter-Measures (NMCM), passive Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) [97–99], anti-piracy operations (i.e. Somalian coasts, Nigeria’s Niger Delta, Gulf of Guinea, Gulf of Aden [100, 101], and Guardafui Channel) and countering-terrorism, relying on the Combined Task”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [97] O’Donohue, Commander Mark: Autonomous underwater vehicles. Niobe Papers 9(11) (2020)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [98] Keane, J., Joiner, K.: Experimental test and evaluation of autonomous underwater vehicles. Aust. J. Multi-Discip. Eng. 16(1), 67–79 (2020) source
• Partly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) describes unmanned maritime systems, torpedoes, and developing autonomous underwater vehicles; the Torpedo section discusses a mine that targets submarines. The cited paper does not establish the claimed uses in naval mine countermeasures, passive anti-submarine warfare, anti-piracy, or counterterrorism, and it distinguishes most existing remotely controlled vehicles from fully autonomous ones. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites [99] Nasu, H., Letts, D.: The legal characterization of lethal autonomous maritime systems: warship, torpedo, or naval mine? Int. Law Stud. 96(1), 4 (2020)Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The section on Western support for Gulf of Guinea states describes maritime exercises and anti-piracy operations in that region, which supports that example in the citing sentence. It does not say robotics or autonomous vessels are used in those operations, and the passages found on submarines and mines discuss capability limits rather than robotic warfare. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites [100] Mvelle, G.: Fighting piracy in the gulf of guinea: small states’ pursuit of strategic autonomy. Revue internationale et strategique 2, 35–46 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  Section 3.2 describes armed maritime patrols and vessel-protection operations in the Gulf of Guinea and off Somalia, supporting the anti-piracy setting for which this source is cited. It does not say that those operations use robotics or autonomous vessels; the broader claim about robotics in naval warfare is therefore unsupported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  cites [101] Broohm, D.A., Wang, G., Gao, J.: Maritime security: a new strategy for merchant shipping to avoid piracy in the Gulf of Guinea. Open J. Soc. Sci. 8(5), 392–410 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [102] Grasso, R., Braca, P., Osler, J., Hansen, J.: Asset network planning: integration of environmental data and sensor performance for counter piracy. In: 21st European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO 2013), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2013)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [103] Karahalios, H.: Appraisal of a ship’s cybersecurity efficiency: the case of piracy. J. Transp. Secur. 13, 1–23 (2020) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [104] AU African Union, COIN Counterinsurgency, and CT Counterterrorism. Ctf counter terrorist financing ctf 150 combined task force 150 cwc chemical weapons convention dfg deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft/German research foundation

In the paper

“they were being used by the British army in Northern Ireland since 1970s [60], to combat the IEDs threat imposed by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and its different factions and descendants [61–63].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [60] Lesley-Dixon, K.: Northern Ireland: the troubles: from the provos to the det, 1968–1998. Pen and Sword (2018)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [61] Miller, D.: Rethinking Northern Ireland: Culture. Ideology and Colonialism. Routledge, London (2014) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [62] Krishnan, A.: Killer Robots: Legality and Ethicality of Autonomous Weapons. Routledge, London (2016) source
• Partly supported

  The paper’s Chapter 1 and Additional information sections describe IRA bombings in Northern Ireland, including attacks against British soldiers in the 1970s. That supports the bombing threat for which this source is cited, but the cited passages do not establish that the threat came from the IRA’s different factions and descendants. The robot-deployment clause has a separate citation [60] and is not attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  cites [63] Barboza, A.R.: The Irish Republican Army: an examination of imperialism, terror, and just war theory. Master’s thesis, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Israel extensively relied on developing Anti-UAV/UGV countermeasures (i.e. Iron Dome patriot missiles, AI-based sensors, facial-recognition and heat-measuring cameras, jammers, laser-guided weapons, etc.), and introduced its own advanced version of UAV and UGV variants to combat the threatening Iranian presence in Syria (Unit 840, trans-border operations near Golan Heights), Southern Lebanon (Hezb”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [87] Borg, S.: Assembling Israeli drone warfare: loitering surveillance and operational sustainability. Security Dialogue, p. 0967010620956796 (2020) source
• ?Could not verify

  The available indexed passages are bibliographic metadata, including an entry labeled Abstract (no page number); they do not discuss Israeli countermeasures or UAV and UGV deployments. Searches for Israel, Iran, the named regions, and the listed technologies found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  cites [88] Benjamin, G.: Drone culture: perspectives on autonomy and anonymity. AI & SOCIETY, pp. 1–11 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [89] Popister, F., Steopan, M., Pusca, A.: Surveillance robot for military use. Acta Tech. Napocensis-Ser. Appl. Math. Mech. Eng. 63(3) (2020)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [91] Marcus, R.D.: Learning ‘under fire’: Israel’s improvised military adaptation to Hamas tunnel warfare. J. Strateg. Stud. 42(3–4), 344–370 (2019) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [92] Michael, K., Dostri, O.: The Hamas military buildup. The crisis of the Gaza strip: a way out (Tel Aviv: INSS, 2017), pp. 49–60 (2019)
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [93] White, J.: The combat performance of Hamas in the Gaza war of 2014. CTC Sentin 7(9), 9–13 (2014)

In the paper

“the Israeli police is known to have used drones (i.e. spiderman urban assault drone), with others equipped with tear gas to counter the Gaza protests and to reduce the threat imposed by possibly armed infiltrators [54, 55] and burning/armed explosive incendiary kites and balloons [56].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [54] Ringrose, K., Ramjee, D.: Watch where you walk: law enforcement surveillance and protester privacy. Calif. L. Rev. Online 11, 349 (2020)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Schulte, P.: Future war: Ai, drones, terrorism and counterterror. In: Handbook of Terrorism and Counter Terrorism Post 9/11. Edward Elgar Publishing (2019) source
• Supported

  Citation [56] is attached to the incendiary kites and balloons, not to the earlier claims about police drones or tear gas. The Introduction describes kites and balloons carrying burning materials or improvised explosive devices, supporting the threat attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites [56] Zych, J.: The use of weaponized kites and balloons in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Secur. Def. Q. 27(5), 71–83 (2019) source

In the paper

“both robots and UAVs were used after the devastating Beirut port explosion that occurred at around 6:07 pm on August 4th, 2020, to help with assessing the damage and impact radius, as well as in the search for missing personnel [49–52].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [49] Mansour, H., Bitar, E., Fares, Y., Makdessi, A., Maalouf, A., El Ghoul, M., Mansour, M., Chami, A., Khalil, M., Jalkh, A., et al.: Beirut port ammonium nitrate explosion. SSRN (2020) source
• ?Could not verify

  The main text of “A Brief Report on the Beirut Port Explosion” describes when the blast occurred and how far its damage extended, but does not discuss how that damage was assessed. Searches for robots, UAVs or drones, and searches for missing-person efforts found no passage about their use after the blast. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [50] Cheaito, M.A., Al-Hajj, S.: A brief report on the beirut port explosion. Mediterr. J. Emerg. Med, Acute Care (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [51] Oxford Analytica. Beirut blast could bring hunger, disease and fury. Emerald Expert Briefings (2020)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [52] Stennett, C., Gaulter, S., Akhavan, J.: An estimate of the TNT-equivalent net explosive quantity (NEQ) of the Beirut port explosion using publicly-available tools and data. Propellants Explos, Pyrotech. 45(11), 1675–1679 (2020) source

In the paper

“Such robot techniques (Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)) evolved and were also used by US-led NATO forces (including the UK) in Iraq and Syria [64, 65], in Yemen, Afghanistan, and Pakistan [66–69].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [64] Karnozov, V., et al.: Russia and Turkey put their latest equipment to the test in Syria. Def. Rev. Asia 14(2), 20 (2020)
• Partly supported

  The “Bulk deployment of drones” section (p. 8) describes NATO’s use of drones as long-range detectors, supporting the general point about NATO and UAVs. It does not describe UGV use or place US-led NATO forces using either technology in Iraq, Syria, Yemen, Afghanistan, or Pakistan. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  cites [65] Zoltán, Ő.: Special features of the Russian-Ukrainian armed conflict. Hadmérnök 15(1), 207–220 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [66] Okpaleke, F., Burton, J.: 9 US grand strategy and the use of unmanned aerial vehicles during the George W. Bush administration. In: Emerging Technologies and International Security: Machines, the State, and War, p. 153 (2020) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [67] Scipanov, L.V., Dolceanu, D.: The opportunity for using remotely operated underwater vehicles in support of naval actions. Bull. Carol I Natl. Def. Univ. 9(3), 62–68 (2020)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [68] Siwek, M., Wacławik, K.: Legal aspects of production and operation of autonomous combat robots. Problemy Mechatroniki: uzbrojenie, lotnictwo, inżynieria bezpieczeństwa, 11 (2020) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [69] Thornton, R., Miron, M.: Towards the ‘third revolution in military affairs’ the Russian military’s use of AI-enabled cyber warfare. RUSI J. 165, 1–10 (2020) source

In the paper

“Robots have been deployed in the medical domain to be used in tele-medicine, virtual care, and remote treatment concepts [29, 39].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Introduction reports that physicians provide care remotely through telemedicine and virtual services, and the Findings describe a mobile telemedicine device used for remote patient monitoring. Neither passage says robots were deployed for those purposes, so the robotics part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites [29] Bokolo Anthony Jnr: Use of telemedicine and virtual care for remote treatment in response to covid-19 pandemic. J. Med. Syst. 44(7), 1–9 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Conclusions (p. 3) describe virtual healthcare services, and the discussion on p. 2 describes remote consultations and treatment through telemedicine. Neither passage says robots are used or have been deployed for those purposes, which is the citing sentence’s central assertion. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  cites [39] Kadir, M.A.: Role of telemedicine in healthcare during covid-19 pandemic in developing countries. Telehealth Med, Today (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Other countries were also reported to adapt a similar technique including Turkey, Hong Kong, China (Wuhan), South Korea, Japan, India (using Mitra medical robot), Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand to monitor cases and maintain medical supply tests, labs and deliveries, aerial spray and disinfection, as well as consumers delivery [116, 119].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [116] Moon, M.J.: Fighting COVID-19 with agility, transparency, and participation: Wicked policy problems and new governance challenges. Public Adm. Rev. 80(4), 651–656 (2020) source
• Partly supported

  The Artificial intelligence (AI) section (page unavailable) says intelligent robots can provide disinfection, food-delivery, and medicine-delivery services. It does not identify the listed countries as using those robots or describe robotic case monitoring, testing, or aerial spraying. The Internet of Things (IoT) section discusses remote patient monitoring, but not as a robotic method. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites [119] Ye, J.: The role of health technology and informatics in a global public health emergency: practices and implications from the covid-19 pandemic. JMIR Med. Inform. 8(7), e19866 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Despite the already listed issues, there are various threats [139] targeting Industrial IoT systems [23] that need to be addressed before diving further into the security aspect of the robotic domain.”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Introduction and Conclusions discuss multiple threats to robotic platforms, particularly communications between Adept mobile robots and their clients. The passages do not address threats targeting Industrial IoT systems; searches for “Industrial IoT” and “Industrial Internet of Things” found no supporting passage. The statement about addressing threats before turning to robotic security is the citing authors’ framing, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  cites [139] Yousef, K.M.A., AlMajali, A., Ghalyon, S.A., Dweik, W., Mohd, B.J.: Analyzing cyber-physical threats on robotic platforms. Sensors 18(5), 1643 (2018) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [23] Rubio, J.E., Alcaraz, C., Roman, R., Lopez, J.: Current cyber-defense trends in industrial control systems. Comput. Secur. 87, 101561 (2019) source

In the paper

“Track and trace problems can affect the real-time ability to locate robotic transits and deliveries. This may lead to supply chain poisoning and reduction of supply chain performance, especially, with the adoption of 5G technology [148].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Section 5.1 (page unavailable) describes 5G-enabled track and trace as locating goods in transit in real time and helping prevent supply-chain poisoning and performance-reducing attacks. Section 5.1.2 says threats to these systems can degrade real-time military capabilities. The paper does not specifically tie those tracking problems to robotic transits or deliveries; it discusses robotic systems separately in Section 5.4.1. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites [148] Sobb, T., Turnbull, B., Moustafa, N.: Supply chain 4.0: a survey of cyber security challenges, solutions and future directions. Electronics 9(11), 1864 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Thus, this paves the way to futuristic robotics-assisted telemedicine and telehealth applications, based on the lessons learnt and to-be-learnt, during the Ebola outbreak and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, such as the smart field hospital trial in Wuhan, China, and the use of smart medical “Xiao Bao” robot [126], as well as the use of “companion robots” to combat loneliness [127].”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Robotics Assisted Telemedicine section says that experience with Ebola and COVID-19 revealed robotic uses and telemedicine options, and describes a Smart Field Hospital trial in Wuhan. The Introduction and Conclusion also propose integrating robotics with telemedicine for future outbreak response. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites [126] Bhaskar, S., Bradley, S., Sakhamuri, S., Moguilner, S., Chattu, V.K., Pandya, S., Schroeder, S., Ray, D., Banach, M.: Designing futuristic telemedicine using artificial intelligence and robotics in the covid-19 era. Front. Public Health 8, 708 (2020) source
• Supported

  Citation [127] is attached to the use of companion robots to combat loneliness, not to the Wuhan hospital or Xiao Bao examples. The Abstract says companion robots have the potential to mitigate loneliness, and “Implications for practitioners” recommends considering them during isolation and quarantine to help people deal with loneliness. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites [127] Odekerken-Schröder, G., Mele, C., Russo-Spena, T., Mahr, D., Ruggiero, A.: Mitigating loneliness with companion robots in the covid-19 pandemic and beyond: an integrative framework and research agenda. J. Serv. Manag. (2020) source

In the paper

“Replay attacks occur when a given adversary stores and replays at a later time the old messages sent between the robot and its operator to disrupt the ongoing traffic. The replay attack’s mechanism is based on broadcasting the previous transmitted message to manipulate the location and the nodes’ routing tables [11] to masquerade the identity of the attacker. Therefore, this affects the”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Related Work discussion (p. 2) mentions replay attacks but does not describe storing and replaying robot–operator messages, disrupting traffic, altering location or routing tables, or masquerading as another identity. The paper’s experiment instead examines a denial-of-service attack that floods the robot’s network interface with TCP traffic (DoS Attack Characteristics, p. 3). Searches for the claimed replay mechanism and routing-table manipulation found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [11] Vuong, T., Filippoupolitis, A., Loukas, G., Gan, D.: Physical indicators of cyber attacks against a rescue robot. In: 2014 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops (PERCOM Workshops), pp. 338–343. IEEE (2014) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Supply-chain disruption the disruption of semi- or fully automated supply chain systems may lead to drastic financial losses, significant time-to-repair, in addition to risking the availability of robotic services and activities [146].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The table in “Risk Management Approaches for Other Processes” (p. 10) links supply-chain disruptions to financial losses, and the delivery-process discussion (p. 8) describes risks to cost and timely delivery. The paper does not address semi- or fully automated supply chains, significant repair times, or the availability of robotic services and activities. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites [146] Salamai, A., Hussain, O.K., Saberi, M., Chang, E., Hussain, F.K.: Highlighting the importance of considering the impacts of both external and internal risk factors on operational parameters to improve supply chain risk management. IEEE Access 7, 49297–49315 (2019) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Network connectivity which is also linked to the cloud decentralization strategy helps reducing denial of service attacks. However, it comes at a cost of reduced resource elasticity and targeted attack behaviours [149]. Moreover, it also risks affecting the supply chain management and disrupts the agility of supply chains [148].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [149] Sha, K., Yang, T.A., Wei, W., Davari, S.: A survey of edge computing-based designs for IoT security. Digit. Commun. Netw. 6(2), 195–202 (2020) source
• Supported

  Section 5.2.1, cited as [149] for the first two sentences, says cloud decentralisation can reduce the denial-of-service attack surface but may reduce resource elasticity and bring more targeted attack behaviours. The separate claim about supply-chain management and agility is cited to [148], not to this source. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites [148] Sobb, T., Turnbull, B., Moustafa, N.: Supply chain 4.0: a survey of cyber security challenges, solutions and future directions. Electronics 9(11), 1864 (2020) source

In the paper

“During the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus [25], which started its outbreak in late 2019, the extensive use of robots, drones, UAVs, autonomous and unmanned vehicles grew fast, along the adoption of AI and ML techniques to ensure a faster detection of infected personnel and to limit the outbreak and infection rates [115].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Social control section describes AI-assisted thermal screening for potentially infected people and tools for enforcing social distancing, and anticipates greater short-term use of robots. It does not report rapid growth in the use of robots, drones, or autonomous vehicles, or establish that their use reduced infection rates; the Concluding remarks instead say AI use had so far been limited. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites [115] Naudé, W.: Artificial intelligence vs covid-19: limitations, constraints and pitfalls. Ai & Society, p. 1 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“This requires an extensive focus on the security and safety of human elements business on the adoption of various security awareness programs, training, modules and (online) lessons to help growing an effective and affordable security awareness culture targeting all the personnel working in the robotic field and domain [236].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites [236] De Cubber, G., Doroftei, D., Rudin, K., Berns, K., Matos, A., Serrano, D., Sanchez, J., Govindaraj, S., Bedkowski, J., Roda, R., et al.: Introduction to the use of robotic tools for search and rescue (2017) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Their study found how an adversely can affect rescue robots’ operation and impair an emergency response action.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The paper’s opening section (p. 1) says a cyber attack on a rescue robot can adversely affect its operation and impair an emergency response operation. Its experimental results (p. 4) report that a denial-of-service attack impaired the robot’s movement. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites [11] Vuong, T., Filippoupolitis, A., Loukas, G., Gan, D.: Physical indicators of cyber attacks against a rescue robot. In: 2014 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops (PERCOM Workshops), pp. 338–343. IEEE (2014) source

In the paper

“On health care despite the known advantages of using robots in surgeries, medical robots were reported to have a negative impact on patients’ lives due to inaccuracy mistakes and errors [210], or due to cyber-attacks (i.e. data exposure/leakage) such as the case of North Korea-Unit 180 (Lazarus) attack on UK’s National Health Service (NHS) in 2017 [211, 212].”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Citation [210] supports the part of the sentence about adverse patient impacts from errors in robotic surgery. The Results report injuries and deaths, and the Injury and Death Causes section identifies technical issues and surgical-team mistakes among the reported causes. The cyber-attack example is attached to different citations, [211, 212], and is not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites [210] Alemzadeh, H., Raman, J., Leveson, N., Kalbarczyk, Z., Iyer, R.K.: Adverse events in robotic surgery: a retrospective study of 14 years of FDA data. PloS one 11(4), e0151470 (2016) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [211] Bloomfield, R.E.G.: Bullets to bytes: defending the United Kingdom in cyberspace (2019)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [212] Rotjan, R.D., Blum, J., Lewis, S.M.: Shell choice in pagurus longicarpus hermit crabs: does predation threat influence shell selection behavior? Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 56(2), 171–176 (2004) source

In the paper

“Robots can be re-modified to carry lethal weapons or can be re-programmed to perform an excessive use force which can lead to both human and material losses [200].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The section on the international-law framework (page not provided) discusses lethal autonomous weapons and the possibility of civilian collateral damage from missile-defence systems operating in automated mode. It does not say that robots can be modified to carry lethal weapons or reprogrammed to use excessive force, which are the mechanisms asserted in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  cites [200] Block, J.: A laws of war review of contemporary land-based missile defence system ‘iron dome’. Sci. Mil. S. Afr. J. Mil. Stud. 45(2), 105–128 (2017) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“In fact, CTI sources include information gathered from HUMman INTelligence (HUMINT), Open Source INTelligence (OSINT), TECHnical INTelligence (TECHINT) and intelligence gathered from the dark web (silk road) [232, 233].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The 'a: KNOWLEDGE BASE' and 'B. EXTRACTION LAYER' sections describe external public repositories and technical security logs as information sources, broadly supporting the OSINT and TECHINT portions. Our copy does not identify HUMINT or dark-web intelligence as sources; searches for those terms and Silk Road found no supporting passage. The passages have no page numbers in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  cites [232] Afzaliseresht, N., Miao, Y., Michalska, S., Liu, Q., Wang, H.: From logs to stories: human-centred data mining for cyber threat intelligence. IEEE Access 8, 19089–19099 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Introduction (p. 1) identifies the clear, social, and dark web as CTI sources, supporting the dark-web portion of the claim. It does not identify HUMINT, OSINT, or TECHINT as CTI-source categories or name Silk Road. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites [233] Koloveas, P., Chantzios, T., Tryfonopoulos, C., Skiadopoulos, S.: A crawler architecture for harvesting the clear, social, and dark web for IoT-related cyber-threat intelligence. In: 2019 IEEE World Congress on Services (SERVICES), vol. 2642, pp. 3–8. IEEE (2019) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Both security and performance analysis state that it is more secure and efficient compared to other well-known authentication schemes.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [272] He, D., Gao, Y., Chan, S., Chen, C., Jiajun, B.: An enhanced two-factor user authentication scheme in wireless sensor networks. Ad Hoc Sens. Wirel. Netw. 10(4), 361–371 (2010)
• ?Could not verify

  The Security and Performance Analysis compares the authors’ own ECC protocol with schemes by Wong, Watro, Das, and Chen; it does not assess a scheme by He et al. The Performance Analysis also says the authors’ protocol has higher computation cost than most comparators. Searches for He et al.’s scheme and its security and efficiency found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [273] Yeh, H.-L., Chen, T.-H., Liu, P.-C., Kim, T.-H., Wei, H.-W.: A secured authentication protocol for wireless sensor networks using elliptic curves cryptography. Sensors 11(5), 4767–4779 (2011) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“By using lightweight one-way hashing computation, this authentication scheme significantly reduces the implementation cost against various attacks including insider attacks.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Conclusions state that lightweight one-way hashing significantly reduces the scheme’s implementation cost and that the scheme resists various known attacks, including insider attacks. The Security Analysis section also explains its resistance to insider attacks. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites [278] Li, C.-T., Weng, C.-Y., Lee, C.-C.: An advanced temporal credential-based security scheme with mutual authentication and key agreement for wireless sensor networks. Sensors 13(8), 9589–9603 (2013) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“However, the proposed solution lacks both mutual authentication and user anonymity [275].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) reports that Chen and Shih found Das’s scheme did not provide mutual authentication. Our copy does not say that Das’s scheme lacks user anonymity; a search for “anonymity” found no passage supporting that part of the claim. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites [275] Kim, J., Lee, D., Jeon, W., Lee, Y., Won, D.: Security analysis and improvements of two-factor mutual authentication with key agreement in wireless sensor networks. Sensors 14(4), 6443–6462 (2014) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Behavioural biometric techniques are mainly based on voice recognition [260, 264], hand geometry recognition [265, 266] and signature recognition [260, 263].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Sections 2 and 2.1 (pp. 3–4) classify voice and signature as behavioural biometrics. They classify hand geometry as physiological, not behavioural, so that part of the attributed claim is contradicted by the source. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites [260] Douglas, M., Bailey, K., Leeney, M., Curran, K.: An overview of steganography techniques applied to the protection of biometric data. Multimed. Tools Appl. 77(13), 17333–17373 (2018) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [264] George, J.P.: Development of efficient biometric recognition algorithms based on fingerprint and face. Ph.D. thesis, Christ University (2012)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [265] Al-Ani, M.S., Rajab, M.A.: Biometrics hand geometry using discrete cosine transform (DCT). Sci. Technol. 3(4), 112–117 (2013)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [266] Jain, A.K., Kumar, A.: Biometric recognition: an overview. In: Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context, pp. 49–79. Springer (2012) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [263] Jain, A.K., Ross, A., Prabhakar, S.: An introduction to biometric recognition. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol. 14(1), 4–20 (2004) source

In the paper

“Beaudoin et al. presented an original software/hardware solution to obtain a universal low-level architecture for agile and easily replicable close-range remote sensing robots in different environments and on different platforms (land, surface, submarine and air) [256].”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Abstract says the authors developed an original software-and-hardware solution for a universal low-level architecture for agile, easily replicable close-range remote sensing robots. It names land, surface, submarine, and air platforms; the Results section says the robots tested share the same low-level unit. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites [256] Beaudoin, L., Avanthey, L., Villard, C.: Porting ardupilot to esp32: towards a universal open-source architecture for agile and easily replicable multi-domains mapping robots. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 43, 933–939 (2020) source

In the paper

“Despite this scheme having its own pros and cons, it can resist against popular attacks, and achieves better efficiency at low computation cost.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Abstract states that RUASN has advantages against popular attacks and achieves better efficiency at low computation cost. The Efficiency Analysis also describes its computations as low-cost and its computational costs as reasonable. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites [285] Kumar, P., Choudhury, A.J., Sain, M., Lee, S.-G., Lee, H.-J.: Ruasn: a robust user authentication framework for wireless sensor networks. Sensors 11(5), 5020–5046 (2011) source

In the paper

“These biometric techniques can be divided into physical and behavioural biometric techniques [260].”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section 2.1 (p. 4) explicitly separates biometric characteristics into physical and behavioural techniques. Section 2 (p. 3) likewise divides biometric data into physiological and behavioural features. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites [260] Douglas, M., Bailey, K., Leeney, M., Curran, K.: An overview of steganography techniques applied to the protection of biometric data. Multimed. Tools Appl. 77(13), 17333–17373 (2018) source

In the paper

“Beaudoin et al. also discussed the wise choice of Ardupilot as an autopilot and presented the ESP32 as an effective new hardware solution in terms of price and energy consumption.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Conclusion explicitly says the authors explained why Ardupilot was a wise autopilot choice and proposed ESP32 as a hardware solution more suitable for price and energy consumption. Section 1.2 adds that ESP32 modules are more efficient at the same price and consume much less energy than the STM32 alternatives. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites [256] Beaudoin, L., Avanthey, L., Villard, C.: Porting ardupilot to esp32: towards a universal open-source architecture for agile and easily replicable multi-domains mapping robots. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 43, 933–939 (2020) source

In the paper

“Strobel et al. compared consensus protocols used in swarm robotics and showed how they fail in the presence of Byzantine (malicious) robots [301].”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Section 6.2 compares consensus approaches and shows that the classical approaches can fail in the presence of Byzantine robots. The claim overgeneralizes that result: the same section reports that the blockchain approach continues to work, while W-MSR can handle a few Byzantine robots. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites [301] Strobel, V., Ferrer, E.C., Dorigo, M.: Blockchain technology secures robot swarms: a comparison of consensus protocols and their resilience to byzantine robots. Front. Robot. AI 7, 54 (2020) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Lastly, Almalawi et al. presented the Global Anomaly Threshold to Unsupervised Detection (GATUD) as an add-on anomaly threshold technique that identifies any abnormal deviation, and improves the performance of the Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) unsupervised anomaly detection approaches [315].”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Introduction describes GATUD as an add-on threshold technique for unsupervised anomaly detection, and the Conclusions say it improves detection accuracy by distinguishing normal from abnormal behaviour. The claim’s reference to abnormal deviation is a paraphrase of that function; it does not require the technique to detect every possible anomaly. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites [315] Almalawi, A., Fahad, A., Tari, Z., Khan, A.I., Alzahrani, N., Bakhsh, S.T., Alassafi, M.O., Alshdadi, A., Qaiyum, S.: Add-on anomaly threshold technique for improving unsupervised intrusion detection on scada data. Electronics 9(6), 1017 (2020) source

In the paper

“On the other hand, stream ciphers can be constructed by block ciphers using the Counter (CTR) and Output FeedBack (OFB) operation mode [294].”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Sections 6.4 (OFB) and 6.5 (CTR) describe using a block cipher to generate output blocks that are XORed with plaintext. This supports the claim that these modes let a block cipher operate in a stream-cipher-like way. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites [294] Dworkin, M.: Recommendation for block cipher modes of operation. Methods and techniques. Technical report, National Inst of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, Computer Security Div (2001) source

In the paper

“As a result, ARGoS–blockchain interface was presented to provide a secure robot swarm coordination via blockchain-based smart contracts as “meta-controllers”, that also overcome Sybil attacks.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Conclusions (section 8) state that the developed ARGoS-blockchain interface provides a framework for secure robot-swarm coordination via blockchain-based smart contracts as “meta-controllers.” The same passage says blockchains prevent Sybil attacks by using scarce cryptocurrency to limit the transactions a robot can send. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites [301] Strobel, V., Ferrer, E.C., Dorigo, M.: Blockchain technology secures robot swarms: a comparison of consensus protocols and their resilience to byzantine robots. Front. Robot. AI 7, 54 (2020) source

In the paper

“Physical Layer Security (PLS) is an emerging paradigm employed to enhance wireless network security without relying on hnoura2021secureigher-layer encryption techniques.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] Hellaoui, H., Koudil, M., Bouabdallah, A.: Energy-efficient mechanisms in security of the internet of things: a survey. Comput. Netw. 127, 173–189 (2017) source
• Supported

  The Related Work section (p. 8) describes PLS as an emerging technique for securing communication systems and contrasts it with conventional upper-layer security solutions. The Abstract (p. 2) also describes the paper’s security scheme as operating at the physical layer. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites [346] Noura, H.N., Melki, R., Chehab, A.: Efficient data confidentiality scheme for 5g wireless NOMA communications. J. Inf. Secur. Appl. 58 (2021) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [347] Noura, H.N., Melki, R., Kanj, R., Chehab, A.: Secure MIMO d2d communication based on a lightweight and robust PLS cipher scheme. Wirel. Netw. 27(1), 557–574 (2021) source

In the paper

“No research was based on the adoption of self-healing robotic system to overcome any possible power/system failure with systems serving as back up.”

In the paper

“the most widely used authentication mechanism in robotic systems is the one-factor authentication scheme”

In the paper

“the pre-shared password suffers from different security issues”

In the paper

“ROS forensics are not being given a great importance in order to trace back and reconstruct any possible attack event(s)”

In the paper

“Unfortunately, the related work lacks a global understanding of the robotics security issues and their causes.”

In the paper

“more than 40 million robots were reportedly sold between 2016 and 2019 [4].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [4] Shyvakov, O.: Developing a security framework for robots. Master’s thesis, University of Twente (2017)

In the paper

“Disaster robots can perform jobs and reach places that humans cannot [45].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [45] Stager, P.: Visual search capability in search and rescue(sar) (1974)

In the paper

“The American police and law enforcement are also using “weaponized drones” armed with tasers, tear gas, and rubber bullets [57].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [57] Engberts, B., Gillissen, E.: Policing from above: drone use by the police. In: The Future of Drone Use, pp. 93–113. Springer (2016) source

In the paper

“Russia also reportedly used drones and UGVs in its conflict in Syria, Libya, and Ukraine [64, 78, 79].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [64] Karnozov, V., et al.: Russia and Turkey put their latest equipment to the test in Syria. Def. Rev. Asia 14(2), 20 (2020)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [78] Jenzen-Jones, N.R.: Understanding the threat posed by cots small UAVs armed with CBR payloads. In: 21st Century Prometheus, pp. 179–204. Springer (2020) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [79] Kaya, E.K.: Walking a fragile path: assessing the idlib de-militarization deal (2018)

In the paper

“new medical robots are capable of performing Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) [41].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [41] Rosen, J., Hannaford, B.: Doc at a distance. IEEE Spectr. 43(10), 34–39 (2006) source

In the paper

“Disaster robots can be used to reach and find helpless people who were isolated by floods, or stuck and lost somewhere [43, 44].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] Murphy, R.R., Tadokoro, S., Nardi, D., Jacoff, A., Fiorini, P., Choset, H., Erkmen, A.M.: Search and rescue robotics. In: Siciliano, B., Khatib, O. (eds.) Springer Handbook of Robotics, pp. 1151–1173. Springer, Berlin (2008) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Murphy, R.R., Tadokoro, S., Kleiner, A.: Disaster robotics. In: Siciliano, B., Khatib, O. (eds.) Springer Handbook of Robotics, pp. 1577–1604. Springer, Berlin (2016) source

In the paper

“Military robots became the latest adopted weapons to be used in most of military operations, especially with the extensive use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to perform target detection and to launch airstrikes [58].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [58] Shachtman, N.: Military stats reveal epicenter of us drone war. Wired. com 9 (2012)

In the paper

“they were designed to serve as medical robots, surgical robots, and hospital robots [40].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [40] Beasley, R.A.: Medical robots: current systems and research directions. J. Robot. (2012) source

In the paper

“Iran developed its own UGVs and UAVs, with many UAV variants being used in Yemen, Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, and Gaza (Shahed, Ababil, Ayoub, Samad, Mohajer, Karrar, Mirsad, Qasef, etc.) via its operators [80], advisers [81–83] and proxies (i.e. Houthis, Hamas, Hezbolah, Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ)) [84–86].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [80] Sadat, S.A.: Iran ties to the Palestinian Islamic resistance movement with emphasis on the Islamic Jihad Movement (PIJ), pp. 77–105 (2016)
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [81] Bendett, S.: Battle robots rivalry and the future of war (2019)
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [82] Brookes, P.: The growing Iranian unmanned combat aerial vehicle threat needs us action. Herit. Found. Backgr. 3437 (2019)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [83] Sims, A.: The rising drone threat from terrorists. Georget. J. Int. Aff. 19, 97–107 (2018) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [84] Rossiter, A.: Bots on the ground: an impending UGV revolution in military affairs? Small Wars Insurgencies 31(4), 851–873 (2020) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [85] Chávez, K., Swed, O.: Off the shelf: the violent nonstate actor drone threat. Air Space Power J. 29, 29 (2020)
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [86] Vogiatzis, D.: The way to the promised land or the door to Armageddon: how severe are the threats against the physical security of israeli offshore gas platforms? Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. Ph.D. thesis (2020)

In the paper

“Turkey also used mainly combat drones (i.e. Bayraktar TB2), and UGV robots (TMR 2 (Kutlu), Zafer (Victory) and KAPLAN) in its campaign in Libya (along the United Arab Emirates who used Chinese-made UCAVs: Wing Loong II [72]) against Haftar forces, and in Syria against Syrian troops, Kurdish factions and Hezbollah members [73, 74].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [73] Milan, F.F., Tabrizi, A.B.: Armed, unmanned, and in high demand: the drivers behind combat drones proliferation in the Middle East. Small Wars Insurgencies 31(4), 730–750 (2020) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [74] Gallagher, K.: Killer optics: exports of Wescam sensors to Turkey (2020)

In the paper

“Search and Rescue (SAR) robots were deployed to locate and find lost Thai cave boys safely [46].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [46] McKirdy, E.: Thailand cave rescue: boys appear in new video, ‘i am healthy’ (2018)

In the paper

“Robots have become artificially smart and able to perform jobs faster, safer, and with higher efficiency [38].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [38] Gogu, G., Ray, P., Neagoe, M., Gogu, G., Diaconescu, D., Pocola, A.G., Pop, D.O., Petra, C.: Robotics and manufacturing. In: Talaba, D., Roche, T. (eds.) Product Engineering: Eco-Design, Technologies and Green Energy, p. 348. Springer, Cham (2006)

In the paper

“robots were used in the firefighting domain [47, 48], which helps in sparing the lives of firefighters and to access areas that are deemed too dangerous, too small, and/or too risky for firefighters.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] Naghsh, A.M., Gancet, J., Tanoto, A., Roast, C.: Analysis and design of human–robot swarm interaction in firefighting. In: The 17th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, 2008. RO-MAN 2008, pp. 255–260. IEEE (2008) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] Hong, J.H., Matson, E.T., Taylor, J.M.: Design of knowledge-based communication between human and robot using ontological semantic technology in firefighting domain. In: Robot Intelligence Technology and Applications, vol. 2, pp. 311–325. Springer (2014) source

In the paper

“Robots are used in agriculture due to their efficient and increased performance in reducing manpower and resource consumption [42].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [42] Cheein, F.A.A., Carelli, R.: Agricultural robotics: unmanned robotic service units in agricultural tasks. IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag. 7(3), 48–58 (2013) source

In the paper

“Spies are constantly being used to conduct (cyber) espionage and sabotage operations, typically between rival countries such as Iranian-Israeli cold cyber-war, which reached its height in May 2020, including cyber-attacks and sabotage operations [136–138].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [136] Siman-Tov, D., Even, S.: A new level in the cyber war between Israel and Iran. INSS Insight (1328) (2020)
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [137] Losa, L.: The impact of cyber capabilities on the Israeli–Iranian relationship (2020)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [138] Kaye, D.D., Efron, S.: Israel’s evolving Iran policy. Survival 62(4), 7–30 (2020) source

In the paper

“Meet-in-the-Middle (MITM) attacks or plaintext attacks occur when the robotic communication is encrypted using a 2-DES, and now 3-DES key (168-bit) using a brute-force like technique to break the encrypted communication channel and either actively or passively eavesdrop. This type of attacks targets robotic data’s confidentiality, integrity and authentication.”

In the paper

“In fact, advanced eavesdropping can take the form of a “cloning and replay” attack, which recovers the data via an information gathering process, before conducting the eavesdropping attempt.”

In the paper

“Back-doors ill-configured robotic applications or applications with third-party access lead to various backdoor and rootkit attacks. This would expose robotic users by targeting their privacy first, and then by keeping them under constant surveillance, monitoring, and tracking, with possibility of registering keystrokes and capturing snapshots or even videos without their knowledge [10].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [10] Cerrudo, C., Apa, L.: Hacking robots before skynet. Cybersecurity Insight, IOActive Report, Seattle, USA (2017)

In the paper

“This attack has different objectives such as slowing down or up the speed of a robot, which may lead to an incident, or target its operational activity and performance. This type of attacks targets the robotic systems’ availability and integrity by affecting its accuracy.”

In the paper

“On the other hand, since applications rely on running software programs to perform the required tasks, these software programs are vulnerable to application attacks, rendering the application itself prone to various types of attacks. This includes malware that including viruses, worms, software Trojans attacks, in addition to buffer overflow and malicious code injection attacks [154].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [154] Clark, G.W., Doran, M.V., Andel, T.R.: Cybersecurity issues in robotics. In: 2017 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017) source

In the paper

“In France, “Big Brother” drones were used to enforce social distancing before being banned in May 2020 [118].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [118] Scott, J.E., Scott, C.H.: Models for drone delivery of medications and other healthcare items. In: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Breakthroughs in Research and Practice, pp. 376–392. IGI Global (2019) source

In the paper

“In May 2020, a drone representing the “Anti-COVID-19 Volunteer Drone Task Force” was urging New-Yorkers to wear their masks and maintain their social distancing, and respect quarantine rules [116, 117].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [116] Moon, M.J.: Fighting COVID-19 with agility, transparency, and participation: Wicked policy problems and new governance challenges. Public Adm. Rev. 80(4), 651–656 (2020) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [117] Yakas, B.: Faa investigating” anti-covid-19 volunteer drone” filmed admonishing people in nyc (2020)

In the paper

“Jamming attacks aim to interrupt and disrupt the robot-to-robot and robot-to-humans communication with the aim to suspend further robotic activities and jam any sort of communication and control. Thus, targeting both systems and data availability.”

In the paper

“In fact, drones were also used to monitor cases and ensure medical deliveries and testing samples to limit the COVID-19 outbreak in Africa [123].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [123] Oguamanam, C.: Covid-19 and Africa: does one size fit all in public health intervention? Vulnerable: The Policy, Law and Ethics of COVID-19.University of Ottawa Press, Ottawa (2020) (Forthcoming in 2020) source

In the paper

“The attacker (fake robot or controller) seems to be authentic since a valid identity is used, which is known as a mask. This is done by forming a blackhole or generating false messages which are then broadcast to the other robots.”

In the paper

“Lack of security by-design features leads to breaking into the robotic system’s architecture and design to scan and exploit its vulnerability/security gap(s) for further attacks, including malicious data injection and modification [10].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [10] Cerrudo, C., Apa, L.: Hacking robots before skynet. Cybersecurity Insight, IOActive Report, Seattle, USA (2017)

In the paper

“Man-in-the-Middle (MiMA) attacks occur when an attacker is capable of actively listening and intercepting the communication between two robotic entities or nodes, alter the information and inject it without being detected. This allows the attacker to control the communication between these legitimated entities [173]. This mainly targets robotic data’s confidentiality, integrity and authentication.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [173] Navas, R.E., Le Bouder, H., Cuppens, N., Cuppens, F., Papadopoulos, G.Z.: Do not trust your neighbors! a small IoT platform illustrating a man-in-the-middle attack. In: International Conference on Ad-Hoc Networks and Wireless, pp. 120–125. Springer (2018) source

In the paper

“This can be done through the initial interception of the ongoing robotic communication and altering it by injecting false data and information, which deviates the robots from performing their intended activity in an accurate manner, or leave them prone to response delays.”

In the paper

“Outsiders aim to gain access to a robotic system through the Internet. The external adversary’s aim is to get access to information for malicious purposes [134], to cause malfunction or/and disrupt the system’s services through the injection of either fake or malicious data.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [134] Atamli, A.W., Martin, A.: Threat-based security analysis for the internet of things. In: 2014 International Workshop on Secure Internet of Things (SIoT), pp. 35–43. IEEE (2014) source

In the paper

“Worm attacks aim to target the robotic systems by exploiting the vulnerabilities of their network’s connected devices before self-propagation and self-replicating to infect other robotic devices, and target industrial control systems [155].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [155] Falliere, N., Murchu, L.O., Chien, E.: W32. stuxnet dossier. White paper, Symantec Corp., Security Response 5(6), 29 (2011)

In the paper

“(Distributed) denial of service attacks can be conducted locally or globally (distributed) in a simultaneous manner which aim to prevent legitimate users from accessing robotic systems and devices.”

In the paper

“Remote-access insecure and open wireless communications and communication ports, as well as unused ones if not closed, could lead to interception whereby attackers use them to gain remote access to a given robotic system to launch their cyber-attack, especially, robots relying on vulnerable LoRaWAN communications [145].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [145] Noura, H.N., Hatoum, T., Salman, O., Yaacoub, J.-P., Chehab, A.: Lorawan security survey: issues, threats and possible mitigation techniques. Internet of Things, p. 100303 (2020) source

In the paper

“The Operating System (OS) upgrades are achieved via internet connection, due to the presence of firmware codes that are usually stored on a flash memory [153]. However, with each upgrade, the OS might be vulnerable to new types of attacks. According to [154], the OS is prone to DoS and D-DoS attacks, along with the arbitrary code execution, and root-kit attacks.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [153] Elmiligi, H., Gebali, F., El-Kharashi, M.W.: Multi-dimensional analysis of embedded systems security. Microprocess. Microsyst. 41, 29–36 (2016) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [154] Clark, G.W., Doran, M.V., Andel, T.R.: Cybersecurity issues in robotics. In: 2017 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017) source

In the paper

“Threats can originate from different sources [134], and can be part of cyber-crimes, cyber-warfare, cyber-espionage, or even cyber-terrorism.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [134] Atamli, A.W., Martin, A.: Threat-based security analysis for the internet of things. In: 2014 International Workshop on Secure Internet of Things (SIoT), pp. 35–43. IEEE (2014) source

In the paper

“Competitors usually, rivals in the robotic industry aim to maintain a leading edge in this domain. Many methods can be adopted such as the reliance on insiders, or part of industrial espionage to leak confidential documents and damage the rival company’s reputation [135].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [135] Hou, T., Wang, V.: Industrial espionage-a systematic literature review (slr). Comput. Secur. 98, 102019 (2020) source

In the paper

“These attacks can vary from least dangerous (e.g. phishing) to the most dangerous ones (e.g. hardware Trojans [151]). Such attacks can lead to the implementation of back-doors for the attacker to lead another attack by gaining unauthorized access to the robots being used, or during their maintenance [152].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [151] Tehranipoor, M., Koushanfar, F.: A survey of hardware Trojan taxonomy and detection. IEEE Des. Test Comput. 27(1), 10–25 (2010) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [152] Wang, X., Mal-Sarkar, T., Krishna, A., Narasimhan, S., Bhunia, S.: Software exploitable hardware Trojans in embedded processor. In: 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Defect and Fault Tolerance in VLSI and Nanotechnology Systems (DFT), pp. 55–58. IEEE (2012) source

In the paper

“Moreover, the idea of knowing that robots will perform the surgical operation can scare many patients and affect their trust in a psychological manner [154].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [154] Clark, G.W., Doran, M.V., Andel, T.R.: Cybersecurity issues in robotics. In: 2017 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017) source

In the paper

“Network impersonation attacks aim to obtain the credentials of a legitimate entity in a given robotic network by claiming its network ID. This allows an attacker to advertise fake data which confuses other network entities, and to flood the robotic networks via DoS attacks.”

In the paper

“Clark et al. have suggested the adoption of a common standardized OS such as NuttX OS [154]. This prevents the exploitation of the firmware and reduces the likelihood of an attack.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [154] Clark, G.W., Doran, M.V., Andel, T.R.: Cybersecurity issues in robotics. In: 2017 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017) source

In the paper

“As a result, we present our Robotic Risk Assessment (RRS) method (Table 3), based on evaluating the likelihood and impact of a given attack (High/Very High, Damaging/Devastating) against the main system components presented earlier, along which security service the attack targets along its impact (critical, major, minor). Moreover, the system exposure level (i.e. high, medium, low) is also”

In the paper

“As a result, medical concerns arose about the possibility of performing physical (i.e. loss of control) or logical (i.e. malicious data modification/injection) attack against a human patient [154], along the possibility of potentially performing assassination attempts (i.e. Vice President Dick Cheney) [213].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [154] Clark, G.W., Doran, M.V., Andel, T.R.: Cybersecurity issues in robotics. In: 2017 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017) source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [213] Peterson, A.: Yes, terrorists could have hacked Dick Cheney’s heart. Washington Post (2013)

In the paper

“However, it lacked the security level testing, and requires further testing performance-wise.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [253] Wagner, H.J., Alvarez, M., Kyjanek, O., Bhiri, Z., Buck, M., Menges, A.: Flexible and transportable robotic timber construction platform-tim. Autom. Constr. 120, 103400 (2020) source

In the paper

“Identity attacks this type of attacks includes identity revealing attacks, which consists of retrieving the identity of the robot to put its operator’s privacy at risk. Equally important, the attacker can track the robots location, which exposes all the needed information and geographical location about robotics systems along their users and devices.”

In the paper

“McLean et al. presented a new method that identifies the risks that surround mobile agent systems [251].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [251] McLean, I., Szymanski, B., Bivens, A.: Methodology of risk assessment in mobile agent system design. In: Information Assurance Workshop, 2003. IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Society, pp. 35–42. IEEE (2003) source

In the paper

“On economy and finance the adoption of robots will surely boost productivity and economic growth, and creates new jobs and opportunities, especially in terms of creativity and social intelligence [206].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [206] Cellan-Jones, R.: Robots ‘to replace up to 20 million factory jobs’ by 2030. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48760799 (27.01. 2020) (2019)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [207] Vermeulen, B., Pyka, A., Saviotti, P.P.: A taxonomic structural change perspective on the economic impact of robots and artificial intelligence on creative work. In: The Future of Creative Work. Edward Elgar Publishing (2020) source

In the paper

“Message tampering–fabrication–alteration attacks aim to break the integrity of the exchanged messages, which is done by altering or creating fake messages, with both authentication and data integrity being affected in this case. This can lead to change the robot events log.”

In the paper

“Expression des Besoins et Identification des Objectifs de Sécurité (EBIOS) [222] was used to identify different risks according to their severity level. However, EBIOS lacked the ability to indicate what security solution is needed to mitigate a given risk.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [222] Secrétariat Général Défense Nationale. Ebios-expression des besoins et identification des objectifs de sécurité (2004)

In the paper

“This is achieved by combining the human–machine analytical capability to reach a higher level of INFOrmation SECurity (INFOSEC) by relying on human assistance and AI combined [235].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [235] Gupta, S., Sabitha, A.S., Punhani, R.: Cyber security threat intelligence using data mining techniques and artificial intelligence. Int. J. Recent Technol. Eng. 8, 6133–6140 (2019)

In the paper

“AI-based detection through the adoption of ML-based mechanisms to ensure a higher accuracy in a timely manner.”

In the paper

“In fact, traffic concerns also arose especially with fatal incidents related to autonomous driving cars were constantly being reported [154, 215].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [154] Clark, G.W., Doran, M.V., Andel, T.R.: Cybersecurity issues in robotics. In: 2017 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [215] Checkoway, S., McCoy, D., Kantor, B., Anderson, D., Shacham, H., Savage, S., Koscher, K., Czeskis, A., Roesner, F., Kohno, T., et al.: Comprehensive experimental analyses of automotive attack surfaces. In: USENIX Security Symposium, pp. 77–92. San Francisco (2011)

In the paper

“Despite the economic boost that the employment of robotics offer especially in industrial and manufacturing fields, except that it comes with a negative impact. Such employment is leading to many job losses worldwide, which is mainly affecting low-skilled workers and poorer local economies, leading to socio-political economic crisis [208, 209].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [208] Cooper, A.: How robots change the world; what automation really means for jobs and productivity. Technical report (Tech. Rep.). Oxford Economics, Oxford (2019)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [209] Acemoglu, D., Restrepo, P.: Robots and jobs: evidence from US labor markets. J. Polit. Econ. 128(6), 2188–2244 (2020) source

In the paper

“Thus, this makes the robots control system less prone to malicious code injection or modification attempt(s) [154].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [154] Clark, G.W., Doran, M.V., Andel, T.R.: Cybersecurity issues in robotics. In: 2017 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017) source

In the paper

“Diab et al. presented SkillMaN as a planning and execution framework using a module with experiential knowledge to integrate perception, planning, knowledge-based reasoning, and to execute various skills such as robot trajectories [254].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [254] Diab, M., Pomarlan, M., Beßler, D., Akbari, A., Rosell, J., Bateman, J., Beetz, M.: Skillman-a skill-based robotic manipulation framework based on perception and reasoning. Robot. Auton. Syst. 134, 103653 (2020) source

In the paper

“Illusion attacks legally compromised robots are placed in the network to generate false data. As a result, false data can spread over the network. In this attack, the authentication countermeasure is not efficient, since the attacker is already authentic. In the robotics case, fake messages are capable of changing the decision of the robot controller.”

In the paper

“Other risks are also associated with weak authentication and password cracking attacks, allowing attackers to gain a remote unauthorized access to the system to perform malicious tasks.”

In the paper

“However, the reliance on cloud services and third party applications and open communication leads to causing network bottleneck, overhead and delays [214], as well as being prone to interception and alteration with lack of repudiation and accountability.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [214] Senthilkumar, K.S., Pirapaharan, K., Julai, N., Hoole, P.R.P., Othman, A.-H., Harikrishnan, R., Hoole, S.R.H.: Perceptron ANN control of array sensors and transmitters with different activation functions for 5g wireless systems. In: 2017 International Conference on Signal Processing and Communication (ICSPC), pp. 107–111. IEEE (2017) source

In the paper

“In fact, without a proper programming that ensures a safer and much more secure deployment and use of robots in police and law enforcement fields, robots may end up in a blue-on-blue engagement which may result in friendly fire, or engaging the wrong targets including civilians.”

In the paper

“Moreover, Wagner et al. presented TIM, which is a large-scale flexible and transportable robotic timber construction platform [253].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [253] Wagner, H.J., Alvarez, M., Kyjanek, O., Bhiri, Z., Buck, M., Menges, A.: Flexible and transportable robotic timber construction platform-tim. Autom. Constr. 120, 103400 (2020) source

In the paper

“This benefits the robotic domain to boost its cyber-security levels by:Development of proactive cyber-security which bolster the overall risk assessment and risk management policies and procedures.”

In the paper

“This includes the adoption and deployment of centralized and decentralized hybrid, lightweight [237, 238] and AI-based [239, 240] intrusion detection and intrusion prevention systems, as well as antivirus mechanisms to trigger an automated response through a constant and continuous monitoring.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [237] Davahlia, A., Shamsib, M., Abaeic, G.: A lightweight anomaly detection model using SVM for WSNs in IoT through a hybrid feature selection algorithm based on GA and GWO. J. Comput. Secur. 7(1), 63–79 (2020)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [238] Pham, V., Seo, E., Chung, T.-M.: Lightweight convolutional neural network based intrusion detection system. J. Commun. 15(11) (2020) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [239] He, H., Gray, J., Cangelosi, A., Meng, Q., McGinnity, T.M., Mehnen, J.: The challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence in implementing trustworthy robotics and autonomous systems. In: 3rd International Conference on Intelligent Robotic and Control Engineering (2020) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [240] Soe, Y.N., Feng, Y., Santosa, P.I., Hartanto, R., Sakurai, K.: Towards a lightweight detection system for cyber attacks in the IoT environment using corresponding features. Electronics 9(1), 144 (2020) source

In the paper

“Moreover, as for risk assessment, Kriaa et al. presented a comprehensive survey of existing designs and risk assessment studies that took into consideration both security and safety for industrial infrastructures [250].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [250] Kriaa, S., Pietre-Cambacedes, L., Bouissou, M., Halgand, Y.: A survey of approaches combining safety and security for industrial control systems. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 139, 156–178 (2015) source

In the paper

“As a result, hardware testing and monitoring are key to avoid any future exploitation [154].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [154] Clark, G.W., Doran, M.V., Andel, T.R.: Cybersecurity issues in robotics. In: 2017 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017) source

In the paper

“CIT includes three intelligence types that can be described as follows:Tactical CIT assists in identifying threat actors.Operational CIT assists in identifying the threat actors’ motives, used tools, techniques and tactics.Strategic CIT assists in developing high-level organizational strategy.”

In the paper

“The advantage of applying ASA includes:Solid security policies which are developed in a professional way to enforce security to show a resilient commitment in achieving the needed robotic security and cyber-security.”

In the paper

“TIM is location independent, reconfigurable and rapidly integrated, offering higher levels of quality and productivity.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [253] Wagner, H.J., Alvarez, M., Kyjanek, O., Bhiri, Z., Buck, M., Menges, A.: Flexible and transportable robotic timber construction platform-tim. Autom. Constr. 120, 103400 (2020) source

In the paper

“However, robots can also be prone to technical and operational problems that threatens the safety of the working personnel [203], as well as cyber-attacks including the disclosure of secret business trades [10].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [203] Morris, I.: War! what is it good for?: conflict and the progress of civilization from primates to robots. Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2014)
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [10] Cerrudo, C., Apa, L.: Hacking robots before skynet. Cybersecurity Insight, IOActive Report, Seattle, USA (2017)

In the paper

“Robotic systems and platforms are vulnerable to various attack types, risking the disclosure, destruction, alteration and modification of sensitive information.”

In the paper

“Security and performance analysis state that this scheme offers more security features and high security level without any communication, computation and storage overhead.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [276] Xue, K., Ma, C., Hong, P., Ding, R.: A temporal-credential-based mutual authentication and key agreement scheme for wireless sensor networks. J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 36(1), 316–323 (2013) source

In the paper

“In addition, different authentication-factor solutions have also been presented in [276], where Xue et al. presented a temporal-credential-based mutual authentication scheme among the user, Gateway Node (GWN) and the sensor node.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [276] Xue, K., Ma, C., Hong, P., Ding, R.: A temporal-credential-based mutual authentication and key agreement scheme for wireless sensor networks. J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 36(1), 316–323 (2013) source

In the paper

“This solution offers more security features with high security levels at a low communication and computation cost.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [279] Gope, P., Hwang, T., et al.: A realistic lightweight anonymous authentication protocol for securing real-time application data access in wireless sensor networks. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 63(11), 7124–7132 (2016) source

In the paper

“Song et al. presented a dual-factor authentication scheme based on the use of smart cards [270].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [270] Song, R.: Advanced smart card based password authentication protocol. Comput. Stand. Interfaces 32(5–6), 321–325 (2010) source

In the paper

“Das et al. presented the first smart-card-based password authentication scheme for WSNs [274].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [274] Chen, T.-H., Shih, W.-K.: A robust mutual authentication protocol for wireless sensor networks. ETRI J. 32(5), 704–712 (2010) source

In the paper

“Both security and performance analysis show that this scheme resists certain security weaknesses but achieves complete security requirements such as energy efficiency, user anonymity, mutual authentication, and user-friendly password change phase with more efficiency.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [282] Amin, R., Biswas, G.P.: A secure light weight scheme for user authentication and key agreement in multi-gateway based wireless sensor networks. Ad Hoc Netw. 36, 58–80 (2016) source

In the paper

“In fact, authentication is primarily used as a first defensive line that ensures the authentication of both, source and destination alike [267].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [267] Wei, X., Wang, T., Tang, C., Fan, J.: Collaborative mobile jammer tracking in multi-hop wireless network. Future Gener. Comput. Syst. 78, 1027–1039 (2018) source

In the paper

“However, González Muñiz and Laud stated that symmetric-key techniques were not enough to construct message recognition protocols in [284].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [284] González Muñiz, M., Laud, P.: On the (im) possibility of perennial message recognition protocols without public-key cryptography. In: Proceedings of the 2011 ACM Symposium on Applied Computing, pp. 1510–1515. ACM (2011) source

In the paper

“However, prior to the biometric system’s set-up, there is also a need for a database to store the biometric templates safely. This allows the stored data to be used for future use [258].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [258] Wallhoff, F.: Fgnet-facial expression and emotion database. Technische Universität München (2004)

In the paper

“Moreover, the authors also presented a very strong evidence that Message Recognition Protocols (MRPs) cannot be built from “cheap” primitives using only hash functions and XORing.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [284] González Muñiz, M., Laud, P.: On the (im) possibility of perennial message recognition protocols without public-key cryptography. In: Proceedings of the 2011 ACM Symposium on Applied Computing, pp. 1510–1515. ACM (2011) source

In the paper

“Meanwhile, Gope et al. presented a realistic lightweight anonymous authentication protocol for securing real-time application data access for WSN [279].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [279] Gope, P., Hwang, T., et al.: A realistic lightweight anonymous authentication protocol for securing real-time application data access in wireless sensor networks. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 63(11), 7124–7132 (2016) source

In the paper

“Jiang et al. revealed that the initial temporal-credential-based authentication that was presented by Xue et al. was prone to various types of attacks, and presented a scheme that further cuts the computational cost [280].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [280] Jiang, Q., Ma, J., Xiang, L., Tian, Y.: An efficient two-factor user authentication scheme with unlinkability for wireless sensor networks. Peer-to-peer Netw. Appl. 8(6), 1070–1081 (2015) source

In the paper

“In fact, Nguyen et al. did investigate the relationship between password protocols and other cryptographic primitives and realized that password-authenticated key exchange and public-key encryption are incomparable under black-box reductions in [268].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [268] Nguyen, M.-H.: The relationship between password-authenticated key exchange and other cryptographic primitives. In: Theory of Cryptography Conference, pp. 457–475. Springer (2005) source

In the paper

“In this context, symmetric cryptographic protocols are preferred since they are known to be more lightweight than asymmetric ciphers, especially with the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) being faster than Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC) in [286].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [286] Eisenbarth, T., Kumar, S., Paar, C., Poschmann, A., Uhsadel, L.: A survey of lightweight-cryptography implementations. IEEE Des. Test Comput. 6, 522–533 (2007) source

In the paper

“However, this scheme is prone to spoofing attacks and offline password guessing attacks.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [282] Amin, R., Biswas, G.P.: A secure light weight scheme for user authentication and key agreement in multi-gateway based wireless sensor networks. Ad Hoc Netw. 36, 58–80 (2016) source

In the paper

“In order to achieve identification and/or verification process, several biometric techniques are needed [259].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [259] Johnson, N.F., Jajodia, S.: Exploring steganography: seeing the unseen. Computer 31(2), 26–34 (1998) source

In the paper

“Hence, Wu et al. presented an efficient two-factor authentication scheme for the single-gateway environment that achieves user anonymity, while preventing de-synchronization attacks in [281].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [281] Fan, W., Lili, X., Kumari, S., Li, X.: A new and secure authentication scheme for wireless sensor networks with formal proof. Peer-to-Peer Netw. Appl. 10(1), 16–30 (2017) source

In the paper

“This scheme supports dynamic node addition and user friendly password change mechanisms using the BAN-logic, providing mutual authentication.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [283] Srinivas, J., Mukhopadhyay, S., Mishra, D.: Secure and efficient user authentication scheme for multi-gateway wireless sensor networks. Ad Hoc Netw. 54, 147–169 (2017) source

In the paper

“Moreover, Wang et al. presented a systematical evaluation framework for schemes to be assessed objectively in [277].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [277] Wang, D., Li, W., Wang, P.: Measuring two-factor authentication schemes for real-time data access in industrial wireless sensor networks. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. (2018) source

In the paper

“Physical biometric techniques include facial recognition [261], fingerprint [262], retina [263] and iris scan [264].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [261] Woodward, J.D., Jr., Horn, C., Gatune, J., Thomas, A.: Biometrics: a look at facial recognition. Technical report, Rand Corp Santa Monica, CA (2003)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [262] Taupin, J.M.: Using forensic DNA evidence at trial: a case study approach. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2016) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [263] Jain, A.K., Ross, A., Prabhakar, S.: An introduction to biometric recognition. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol. 14(1), 4–20 (2004) source

In the paper

“At first, Lamport [269] was the first to present a remote user authentication scheme using a password.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [269] Lamport, L.: Password authentication with insecure communication. Commun. ACM 24(11), 770–772 (1981) source

In the paper

“The experimental results, conducted on a quad-rotor and a rover, reveal the ability to safely recover the vehicle from various attacks and prevent crashing.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [255] Choi, H., Kate, S., Aafer, Y., Zhang, X., Xu, D.: Software-based realtime recovery from sensor attacks on robotic vehicles. In: 23rd International Symposium on Research in Attacks, Intrusions and Defenses (RAID 2020), pp. 349–364 (2020)

In the paper

“Evaluation results indicate that all existing schemes are not ideal.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [277] Wang, D., Li, W., Wang, P.: Measuring two-factor authentication schemes for real-time data access in industrial wireless sensor networks. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. (2018) source

In the paper

“However, such models were not scalable enough in multi-gateway industrial WSNs, but proved to offer more security characters than Jiang et al. and Choi et al.’s schemes, especially for WSNs.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [281] Fan, W., Lili, X., Kumari, S., Li, X.: A new and secure authentication scheme for wireless sensor networks with formal proof. Peer-to-Peer Netw. Appl. 10(1), 16–30 (2017) source

In the paper

“Different lightweight ciphers were presented recently and described in [19], including KATAN [287], KLEIN [288], mCrypton [289], Piccolo [290], PRESENT [291], TWINE [292], and EPCBC [293].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] Hellaoui, H., Koudil, M., Bouabdallah, A.: Energy-efficient mechanisms in security of the internet of things: a survey. Comput. Netw. 127, 173–189 (2017) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [287] De Canniere, C., Dunkelman, O., Knežević, M.: Katan and ktantan—a family of small and efficient hardware-oriented block ciphers. In: Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems-CHES 2009, pp. 272–288. Springer (2009) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [288] Gong, Z., Nikova, S., Law, Y.W.: Klein: a new family of lightweight block ciphers. In: International Workshop on Radio Frequency Identification: Security and Privacy Issues, pp. 1–18. Springer (2011) source

In the paper

“Hence, Srinivas et al. proposed a scheme to overcome these problems in [283].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [283] Srinivas, J., Mukhopadhyay, S., Mishra, D.: Secure and efficient user authentication scheme for multi-gateway wireless sensor networks. Ad Hoc Netw. 54, 147–169 (2017) source

In the paper

“Onat et al. presented the mIDS, as a general methodology of an anomaly-based IDS that uses the Binary Logistic Regression (BLR) statistical tool to classify local sensor activities and to detect the malicious behaviour of the sensor node [308].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [308] Onat, I., Miri, A.: An intrusion detection system for wireless sensor networks. In: IEEE International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking And Communications, 2005.(WiMob’2005), vol. 3, pp. 253–259. IEEE (2005) source

In the paper

“Despite its advantages, it does not meet trade-off between operational performance and security, as well as the complexity in storing data.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [302] Alcaraz, C., Rubio, J.E., Lopez, J.: Blockchain-assisted access for federated smart grid domains: coupling and features. J. Parallel Distrib. Comput. (2020) source

In the paper

“Evaluation results indicate a detection rate that ranges between 88 and 100% using routing layer attacks.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [308] Onat, I., Miri, A.: An intrusion detection system for wireless sensor networks. In: IEEE International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking And Communications, 2005.(WiMob’2005), vol. 3, pp. 253–259. IEEE (2005) source

In the paper

“Another approach was presented by Gudadhe et al. in [309]. This approach is a new network intrusion detection model using boosted decision trees.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [309] Gudadhe, M., Prasad, P., Wankhade, L.K.: A new data mining based network intrusion detection model. In: 2010 International Conference on Computer and Communication Technology (ICCCT), pp. 731–735. IEEE (2010) source

In the paper

“The authors also performed a cryptanalysis test on their solution using the Proverif tool and revealed the ability of their system to overcome various security threats and attacks.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [300] Chavhan, S., Doriya, R.: Secured map building using elliptic curve integrated encryption scheme and kerberos for cloud-based robots. In: 2020 Fourth International Conference on Computing Methodologies and Communication (ICCMC), pp. 157–164. IEEE (2020) source

In the paper

“Such attacks are possible due to the lack of security by design of robotic systems and the reliance on open wireless communication channels.”

In the paper

“the asymmetric key techniques might not be practical in the context of limited robotic devices”

In the paper

“Another approach named WebSTAT was presented by Vigna et al. in [307]. WebSTAT is a novel intrusion detection system that analyses web requests and searches for evidence of malicious behaviours, ensuring both flexibility and extensibility, along a much more effective web-based attack detection at a lower false positive rate.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [307] Vigna, G., Robertson, W., Kher, V., Kemmerer, R.A.: A stateful intrusion detection system for world-wide web servers. In: Null, p. 34. IEEE (2003) source

In the paper

“Another hybrid IDS approach was presented by Om et al. in [310]. This approach combines the merits of anomaly and misuse detection to overcome the very high false alarm rate of anomaly detection.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [310] Om, H., Kundu, A.: A hybrid system for reducing the false alarm rate of anomaly intrusion detection system. In: 2012 1st International Conference on Recent Advances in Information Technology (RAIT), pp. 131–136. IEEE (2012) source

In the paper

“Rivera et al. presented ROS-Immunity as a solution that allows ROS users to harden their systems against attackers with low overhead, using robustness assessment, automatic rule generation, and distributed defence with a firewall [312].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [312] Rivera, S., Iannillo, A.K., et al.: Ros-immunity: integrated approach for the security of ros-enabled robotic systems (2020) source

In the paper

“Another nonparametric density estimation approach was presented by Yeung et al. in [306], using Parzen-window estimators with Gaussian kernels to build an intrusion detection system using normal data only.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [306] Yeung, D.-Y., Chow, C.: Parzen-window network intrusion detectors. In: Object Recognition Supported by User Interaction for Service Robots, vol. 4, pp. 385–388. IEEE (2002) source

In the paper

“The obtained testing results prove that the method is functional and can detect an intrusive behaviour with a good error rate (15% error).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [303] Fagiolini, A., Pellinacci, M., Valenti, G., Dini, G., Bicchi, A.: Consensus-based distributed intrusion detection for multi-robot systems. In: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2008. ICRA 2008, pp. 120–127. IEEE (2008) source

In the paper

“Honeypots are very useful tools that supplement other security technologies in order to form a firm (see Table 5, and sophisticated defensive network security system [316].”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [316] Spitzner, L.: Honeypots: Tracking Hackers, vol. 1. Addison-Wesley, Reading (2003)