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Prevalence, Comorbidity, and Correlates of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders and Associations with HIV Risk Behaviors in a Multisite Cohort of Women Living with HIV
Open accessAbstract
We used the World Health Organization's Composite International Diagnostic Interview to determine the prevalence, comorbidity, and correlates of lifetime and 12-month behavioral health disorders in a multisite cohort of 1027 women living with HIV in the United States. Most (82.6%) had one or more lifetime disorders including 34.2% with mood disorders, 61.6% with anxiety disorders, and 58.3% with substance use disorders. Over half (53.9%) had at least one 12-month disorder, including 22.1% with mood disorders, 45.4% with anxiety disorders, and 11.1% with substance use disorders. Behavioral health disorder onset preceded HIV diagnosis by an average of 19 years. In multivariable models, likelihood of disorders was associated with women's race/ethnicity, employment status, and income. Women with 12-month behavioral health disorders were significantly more likely than their counterparts to engage in subsequent sexual and substance use HIV risk behaviors. We discuss the complex physical and behavioral health needs of women living with HIV.
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“Indeed, up to 63% of PWH meet criteria for a co-occurring substance use and psychiatric disorder [22, 23], with depression and anxiety being the most common psychiatric co-morbidities [23, 24].”
From A Randomized Feasibility/Acceptability Trial of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for People with HIV Who Drink at Unhealthy Levels. (2026) · cites this paper as [23]
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Self-citation
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HIV, Depression, and Cognitive Impairment in the Era of Effective Antiretroviral Therapy
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“In sum, our findings provide preliminary evidence for the role of HPA axis and inflammation in comorbid HIV and rMDD which occurs in approximately 34% of WWH (Cook et al., 2018).”
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“Additional, overlapping risk factors include pre-existing mood disorders and harmful alcohol consumption [20,21], substance abuse [22], nicotine dependence [19], poor adherence to ART [18], risky sexual behaviors [22], structural barriers such as internalized stigma [18], experiences of discrimination [18,23], and soc…”
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“HIV-1 infection and substance abuse disorders are frequently comorbid (95, 96), and previous work has shown that neurons in regions implicated in reward seeking, such as the medial PFC, are hyperexcitable in the presence of HIV, particularly in models of salient reward self-administration (97, 98).”
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Lynn, V., Webb, F. J., Joerg, C., & Nembhard, K. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-58293-6_6 · Cited by 16
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BackgroundSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Issues Among HIV/AIDS Patients
Junaid, K., Afzal, S., Daood, M., & Siddiqui, M. (2023) · Journal of College of Physicians And Surgeons Pakistan · doi:10.29271/jcpsp.2023.03.325 · Cited by 14
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“About 50% of persons living with HIV report a lifetime history of substance abuse (Bing et al., 2001) and 11–12% meet criteria for past year SUD (Cook et al., 2018).”
BackgroundCerebrospinal fluid levels of 5-HIAA and dopamine in people with HIV and depression
Fu, R., Jinnah, H. A., McKay, J. L., Miller, A. H., Felger, J. C., Farber, E. W., Sharma, S., Whicker, N. E., Moore, R. C., Franklin, D. R., et al. (2023) · Journal of NeuroVirology · doi:10.1007/s13365-023-01142-2 · Cited by 13
“In a study of postmortem brain samples, there was a significant decrease in DA levels in caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra in PWH compared to brain samples from PWOH (Kumar et al.”
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BackgroundPsychiatric Disorders and Substance Use Among African American Women in HIV Care
Hutton, H. E., Cardin, N., Ereme, K., Chander, G., Xu, X., & McCaul, M. E. (2020) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-020-02858-6 · Cited by 11
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“6%.(10) Control and management of social phobia and exposure to stigma can play an important role in the treatment and care interventions of HIV-positive patients.”
Higher Soluble CD163 in Blood Is Associated With Significant Depression Symptoms in Men With HIV
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“In the dias-pora, lower SES was linked to higher MM prevalence and increased disease count, 42–44 while in continental studies, the impact of SES was variable.”
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DEPRESSÃO E ANSIEDADE DE PESSOAS VIVENDO COM HIV/AIDS
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Emanuel, K. M., Runner, K., Brodnik, Z. D., Morsey, B., Lamberty, B. G., Johnson, H. S., Acharya, A., Byrareddy, S. N., España, R. A., Fox, H. S., et al. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.104207 · Cited by 6
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“18,24,27 Yet, research has shown that HIV-related clinical variables associated with depressive symptoms in PLWHA include side effects of ART, 28–30 and poor adherence to ART.”
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“In addition, because racial and ethnic minority communities are disproportionately affected by comorbidities (Cook et al., 2018; Rawlings & Masters, 2008; Shadmi, 2013), URM scientists are more likely to experience adverse living and work conditions (e.g., discriminatory) and be attuned to the…”
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The anxiety care continuum and its association with viral suppression among persons with HIV
Zalla, L. C., Hutton, H. E., Fojo, A. T., Falade-Nwulia, O. O., Jones, J. L., Keruly, J. C., Snow, L. N., Moore, R. D., & Lesko, C. R. (2024) · AIDS · doi:10.1097/qad.0000000000003986 · Cited by 5
Uso de sustancias en mujeres y violencia de género: Desde una perspectiva feminista e interseccional
Torres-Lorenzo, A., Ayala-Ramos, G. E., Morales-Vargas, P. V., Aldwen-Cruz, K. M., Ríos-Rivera, G. D., & Rodríguez-Caraballo, D. J. (2022) · Revista Puertorriqueña de Psicología · doi:10.55611/reps.3302.11 · Cited by 5
Boga, D. J., Juste, R. S., Etienne, K., & Dale, S. K. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-024-00530-1 · Cited by 4
“…struggles among women living with HIV (Bing et al., 2001) with a longitudinal study among women indicating that the lifetime and one year prevalence and comorbidity of anxiety, mood and substance use disorders in women living with HIV exceeded that of the general population (Cook et al., 2018).”
Brown, J. L., Gause, N. K., Braun, R. S., Punches, B. E., Spatholt, D., Twitty, T. D., Sprunger, J. G., & Lyons, M. S. (2023) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/15248399231193005 · Cited by 4
Psychiatric hospitalization among youth at high risk for HIV
Rezvan, P. H., Rezai, R., Comulada, W. S., Lee, S. J., Arnold, E. M., Swendeman, D. T., Rotheram‐Borus, M. J., & Fernandez, M. I. (2021) · AIDS Care · doi:10.1080/09540121.2021.1944599 · Cited by 4
“MHDs have been linked substance use, condomless sex, transactional sex, and other HIV risk behaviors (Cook et al., 2018; Hotton et al., 2020).”
BackgroundNakasujja, N., Vecchio, A., Saylor, D. R., Lofgren, S. M., Nakigozi, G. F., Boulware, D. R., Kisakye, A., Batte, J., Mayanja, R., Anok, A., et al. (2021) · Journal of NeuroVirology · doi:10.1007/s13365-020-00920-6 · Cited by 4
Watson, L., Haley, D. F., Turpin, R., Ma, T., Nguyen, Q. C., Mittal, M., Dyer, T. V., & the HPTN 064 Study Team (2024) · Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1089/jwh.2023.0458 · Cited by 4
“44 Sensitivity analyses were conducted to examine whether household income was re fl ected in the neighborhood-level structural variables.”
Belus, J. M., Cholera, R., Miller, W. C., Bassett, J., & Gaynes, B. N. (2019) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-019-02586-6 · Cited by 4
Stokes, M. L., Abram, K. M., Aaby, D., Welty, L. J., Meyerson, N. S., Zawitz, C. J., & Teplin, L. A. (2023) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2023.05.015 · Cited by 4
López, C. M., Goodrum, N. M., Brown, T. P., O’Brien, A., Davies, F., & Moreland, A. D. (2023) · The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research · doi:10.1007/s11414-023-09850-7 · Cited by 6
Ham, L., Tang, B., Kohli, M., Jeste, D. V., Grant, I., & Moore, D. J. (2022) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-022-03798-z · Cited by 3
Baselga, S. V. (2023) · MedieKultur Journal of media and communication research · doi:10.7146/mk.v39i74.132466 · Cited by 4
Shayegi-Nik, S., Wang, L., Li, J., Budu, M. O., Kooij, K. W., Honer, W. G., Hogg, R. S., Montaner, J. S. G., & Lima, V. D. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01272-6 · Cited by 3
“Similar to previous findings, we observed that women, younger and low-income individuals, and residents of the DTES were more likely to have SUD (Cook et al., 2018; Erickson et al., 2015).”
Wang, L., Slaughter, F. A., Nguyen, A., Smith, S., Prabhu, S., Beima‐Sofie, K., Wallace, S. E., Crane, H. M., Simoni, J. M., & Graham, S. M. (2024) · AIDS Care · doi:10.1080/09540121.2024.2341220 · Cited by 3
“As in the general population, COVID-19 has had negative impacts on mental health outcomes among people with HIV (PWH), whose prevalence of mental illness is higher than that of the general population (Cook et al., 2018).”
Structural Competency as a Global Framework for Syndemic HIV Care: A Critical Synthesis
Melino, K., & Leonard, A. (2026) · Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care · doi:10.1097/jnc.0000000000000619 · Cited by 3
The kynurenine pathway in relation to depression and anhedonia symptom severity among women with HIV
Gabbay, V., Hills, C., Cardozo, F., Chance, A. B., Sharma, A., Mowrey, W. B., Baker, Z., QI, Q., Burgess, H. J., Berman, J. W., et al. (2026) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2026.101199 · Cited by 2
Stockman, J. K., Anderson, K. M., Carr, S. G., Wood, B. A., Cloître, M., & Smith, L. R. (2022) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/10497315221124602 · Cited by 2
“…40% of WLHA in a nationally representative sample have a DSM-V psychiatric disorder (Lopes et al., 2012), and 58.1% of WLHA from a large multisite cohort in the US reported risky substance use behaviors, while 49.9% reported drug abuse, and 19.6% reported alcohol abuse (Cook et al., 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialLin, R. F., Cheng, S., Liu, Y.-P., Chen, C., Wang, Y.-J., & Chang, S. (2021) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9091148 · Cited by 2
“The prevalence of depression among PLHIV was between 18% and 81% [3,6–8].”
BackgroundEhsan, S., & Batool, S. S. (2022) · Pakistan Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.54393/pjhs.v3i05.174 · Cited by 2
Consumo de sustancias psicoactivas y su efecto en la salud de la población
Villareal-Calderón, L. A., Castro-Jalca, J. E., Cajape, M. A. P., & Valverde-Balladares, K. M. (2023) · MQRInvestigar · doi:10.56048/mqr20225.7.3.2023.4200-4224 · Cited by 2
Tao, X., Yip, T., & Fisher, C. B. (2022) · Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/15332640.2022.2091702 · Cited by 2
“The prevalence rate of SUDs increases with some of these conditions (e.g., HIV), and further increases among adults with multiple chronic conditions, such as asthma, arthritis, diabetes, and cancer (Cook et al., 2018; Mallorquí-Bagué et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2018).”
BackgroundResultMatt, S. M., Nolan, R., Manikandan, S., Agarwal, Y., Channer, B., Oteju, O., Daniali, M., Canagarajah, J. A., LuPone, T., Mompho, K., et al. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.06.09.598137 · Cited by 2
Woolf-King, S. E., Dalton, M. R., Firkey, M., Sheinfil, A., Bucci, V., Estrada, B., Ramos, J., Hahn, J. A., Bricker, J., Gump, B., et al. (2026) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-025-04990-7 · Cited by 1
“Indeed, up to 63% of PWH meet criteria for a co-occurring substance use and psychiatric disorder [22, 23], with depression and anxiety being the most common psychiatric co-morbidities [23, 24].”
Latent Profile Analysis of Cognitive Performance and Depressive Symptoms Among People with HIV
Kohli, M., Ham, L., Saloner, R., Dung, D., Iudicello, J. E., Ellis, R. J., & Moore, D. J. (2024) · AIDS Patient Care and STDs · doi:10.1089/apc.2023.0224 · Cited by 1
“10,12,13,20,21 26–30 In a large, multi-site clinical cohort study, greater chronicity of depression increased the likelihood of negative health outcomes (i.e., missed HIV primary care appointments, detectable viral load, higher mortality rates) at multiple points on the HIV care continuum.”
Adult HIV/AIDS patients are more likely to experience anxiety symptoms
Abdu, Z., Belayneh, W., Dule, A., Alemu, S. S., Wedajo, L. F., Hajure, M., Mulatu, G., Alemayehu, Y., Gezimu, W., Hussen, M. A., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1507020 · Cited by 1
Deaterly, C. D., Weaver, M. T., Parker, L. A., Starkweather, A. R., Forsyth, B., Zhou, Z. H., Cohen, C. H., & Cook, R. L. (2025) · AIDS Care · doi:10.1080/09540121.2025.2464618 · Cited by 1
“These findings are consistent with previous studies showing a high burden of mental health conditions and comorbid substance use in other cohorts of WWH (Barai et al., 2016; Cook et al., 2018; Kassaye et al., 2019; Malee et al., 2014).”
Lazor, T., Sanches, M., Wardell, J. D., Wang, W., Burchell, A. N., Margolese, S. L., Bekele, T., Kroch, A. E., Rueda, S., & OHTN Cohort Study Group (2025) · AIDS Education and Prevention · doi:10.1521/aeap.2025.37.2.142 · Cited by 1
Ramakrishnan, A., Fujita, A. W., Mehta, C. C., Wilson, T. E., SHOPTAW, S. J., Carrico, A. W., Adimora, A. A., Eaton, E., Jones, D. L., Chandran, A., et al. (2023) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0000000000003373 · Cited by 1
Akay, C., Newton, S. E. B., Dombroski, B. A., Kallianpur, A. R., Bharti, A., Franklin, D. R., Schellenberg, G. D., Heaton, R. K., Grant, I., Ellis, R. J., et al. (2024) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-024-10125-x · Cited by 3
“Accumulating evi - dence also supports that neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression and aging-related disorders are more common in PWH (Cook et al. 2018; Lu et al. 2019 ; Valcour et al. 2011 ).”
BackgroundMental health phenotypes of well-controlled HIV in Uganda
Rubin, L. H., Cho, K., Bolzenius, J. D., Mannarino, J. A., Easter, R. E., Dastgheyb, R. M., Anok, A., Tomusange, S., Saylor, D. R., Wawer, M. J., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1407413 · Cited by 1
Ham, L., Roesch, S. C., Franklin, D. R., Ellis, R. J., Grant, I., & Moore, D. J. (2025) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-025-04623-z · Cited by 1
“There is significant evidence that people with HIV (PWH) experience a disproportionate burden of disease with older age [1] including neurocognitive impairment (NCI) [2, 3], and psychiatric [4, 5] and medical [1, 6] comorbidities.”
Akay, C., Newton, S. E. B., Dombroski, B. A., Kallianpur, A. R., Bharti, A., Franklin, D. R., Schellenberg, G. D., Heaton, R. K., Grant, I., Ellis, R. J., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.04.20.22273997 · Cited by 1
The Effect of Stress Management Training on Stigma and Social Phobia in HIV‐positive womenPreprint
Shamsaei, F., Tahour, N., & Sadeghian, E. (2019) · doi:10.21203/rs.2.10270/v1
“In a study conducted by Cook et al (2018) study, the rate of anxiety disorders in positive HIV women in the United States was 61.6% [ 10].”
BackgroundInfluentialPathobiology of CNS human immunodeficiency virus infection
Rubin, L. H., Tovar‐y‐Romo, L. B., & Haughey, N. J. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-85654-6.00031-9
Jones, M. C., Byun, J. Y., Billings, R., Shorten, A., Kempf, M.-C., Vance, D. E., & Puga, F. (2023) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-023-03990-9
Xenophobia vs. Patriotism: Where is my Home? – Proceedings
Klicperova-Baker, M., & Friedlmeier, W. (2022) · ScholarWorks - GVSU (Grand Valley State University) · doi:10.4087/lair9145
Duthely, L. M., Villar-Loubet, O. M., Akurati, S., & Covarrubias, A. P. S. (2022) · doi:10.4087/dxul5725
Shayegi-Nik, S., Wang, L., Magee, C., Li, J., Budu, M. O., Kooij, K. W., Honer, W. G., Hogg, R. S., Montaner, J. S. G., & Lima, V. D. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-088818
Obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms in an adult cystic fibrosis population
Sowa, N. A., Pudukodu, H. S., Ceppe, A., & Goralski, J. L. (2025) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2025.112118
Goodrum, N. M., Nguyen, J. K., O’Brien, A., Livingston, S., & Moreland, A. D. (2025) · Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care · doi:10.1097/jnc.0000000000000556
Sheinfil, A. Z., Morales-Aseff, D., Lebowitz, Z., Rodriguez‐Barradas, M. C., Giordano, T. P., & Ecker, A. H. (2026) · Journal of Substance Use and Addiction Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.josat.2026.209957
Metadata
- Authors
- Cook, J. A., Burke-Miller, J. K., Steigman, P. J., Schwartz, R. M., Hessol, N. A., Milam, J., Merenstein, D. J., Anastos, K., Golub, E. T., & Cohen, M. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- Northwell Health (US)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Georgetown University (US)
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- John H. Stroger, Jr. Hospital of Cook County (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- AIDS and Behavior
- Published
- 2018-02-19
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 3141-3154
- ISSN
- 1090-7165 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3254
- PMC
- PMC6153984
- OpenAlex
- W2791638408
- Cited by
- 102
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 11
- FWCI
- 5.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- AIDS and Behavior (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (1R01MH089830)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U01-AI-035004, U01-AI-034993, U01-AI-042590)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › HIV/AIDS Research and Interventions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › HIV, Drug Use, Sexual Risk
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › HIV-related health complications and treatments
- Keywords
- women living with HIV, mental illness, substance use disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, comorbidities, HIV risk behavior, sexual risk behavior, substance use, behavioral health needs, race and ethnicity, employment status, income
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Mental Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Risk-Taking, Sexual Behavior, United States, Cohort Studies, HIV Infections, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Mood Disorders, Substance-Related Disorders
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