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Public Stigma of Mental Illness in the United States: A Systematic Literature Review
Open accessAbstract
Public stigma is a pervasive barrier that prevents many individuals in the U.S. from engaging in mental health care. This systematic literature review aims to: (1) evaluate methods used to study the public's stigma toward mental disorders, (2) summarize stigma findings focused on the public's stigmatizing beliefs and actions and attitudes toward mental health treatment for children and adults with mental illness, and (3) draw recommendations for reducing stigma towards individuals with mental disorders and advance research in this area. Public stigma of mental illness in the U.S. was widespread. Findings can inform interventions to reduce the public's stigma of mental illness.
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“The aforesaid has great relevance in the global context, where research has shown the presence of high levels of discrimination, stigma, and prejudice toward those impacted by mental health problems, especially schizophrenia and bipolar disorder [6,7].”
From Innovative Technology–Based Interventions to Reduce Stigma Toward People With Mental Illness: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [7]
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“…associated with attitudes toward mental health treatments (Crowe et al., 2016; Held & Owens, 2012), and despite an increase in public awareness and knowledge surrounding mental health, stigmatizing attitudes have persisted across time (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013; Pescosolido et al., 2010).”
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Gwain, G. C., Amu, H., & Bain, L. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.895048 · Cited by 5
Gibb, K., Bui, D. P., & Vergara, X. P. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20021253 · Cited by 5
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Background“Turning the tide” in Treatment of substance use: A nursing response
Worley, J., & Delaney, K. R. (2017) · Journal of Nursing Education and Practice · doi:10.5430/jnep.v8n2p116 · Cited by 5
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Younes, S., Hajj, A., Sacre, H., Mourad, N., Akel, M., Haddad, C., Sakr, F., Zeenny, R. M., & Salameh, P. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0310755 · Cited by 6
“In fact, the stigma surrounding mental illnesses, including ADHD, is a pervasive challenge [20].”
Frank, B. P., Theil, C. M., Brill, N., Christiansen, H., Schwenck, C., Kieser, M., Reck, C., Steinmayr, R., Wirthwein, L., & Otto, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.892174 · Cited by 6
Intersectional trends in poor mental health and health inequities across the US
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Large multimodal models assist in psychiatry disorders prevention and diagnosis of students
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Shafti, S. S. (2021) · Biomedical Research and Clinical Reviews · doi:10.31579/2692-9406/042 · Cited by 4
“Additionally, many, unceasing contacts with persons with mental disorder is encouraged as multiple positive contacts more successfully diminish stigma than a single meeting [41].”
BackgroundEvaluation of Stigma of Mental Illnesses: A Review
Ordu, F. (2023) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1079332 · Cited by 4
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“A US-based review highlighted common public beliefs about people with mental illness that included incompetence, and violent and criminal behaviors (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013).”
BackgroundComparing brief video interventions to reduce public and self‐stigma: Randomized control trial
Amsalem, D., Jankowski, S. E., Markowitz, J. C., Stroup, T. S., Dixon, L. B., & Pope, L. G. (2024) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.13524 · Cited by 5
“mental illnesses (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013).”
Kehyayan, V., Omar, H., Ghuloum, S., Marji, T., Al-Amin, H. A., Alah, M. A., & Mahfoud, Z. R. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06686-y · Cited by 4
Lasalvia, A., Vallan, M. D., Bodini, L., & Bonetto, C. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116291 · Cited by 4
Stigmatizing attitudes and endorsement of coercive interventions for hoarding
Larkin, P., Sheppard, S. B., Bratiotis, C., & Woody, S. R. (2024) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2024.100933 · Cited by 5
Fan, Z., Shi, X., Luo, Y., Chen, H., & Wen, H. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-22743-y · Cited by 4
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An 11-Year-Old Boy With Asperger’s Disorder Presenting With Aggression
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“Stigma around mental health and mental illness is still widespread (11), and assessments and support through the school psychologist are important in reducing”
BackgroundAmerican Psychiatric Nurses Association—Transitions in Practice Certificate Program
Adams, S. M., & Black, P. (2016) · Nursing Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1097/naq.0000000000000168 · Cited by 4
“These are (1) key monitors of data that may currently be collected or can potentially be collected by health care agencies; (2) key search words reflecting documentation and integration of ATP concepts through chart or electronic health record review; and (3) standardized measures suitable for clinical settings to eva…”
BackgroundKidd, S. A., Frederick, T. J., Tarasoff, L. A., Virdee, G., Lurie, S., Davidson, L., Morris, D., & McKenzie, K. J. (2017) · American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/15487768.2017.1374219 · Cited by 4
“…easier to have conversations about mental illness due to large-scale antistigma campaigns, which stands in contrast to studies that suggest that stigmatization is not decreasing (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013) and that antistigma campaigns have a limited impact (Read, Haslam, Sayce, & Davies, 2006).”
ResultStigmatization and self‐determination of preregistration nurses: A path analysis
Perlman, D., Brighton, R. M., Patterson, C., Moxham, L. J., Taylor, E. K., Sumskis, S., & Heffernan, T. (2017) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/inm.12336 · Cited by 4
“A prevalent type of stigma is ‘public stigma’, or the negative attitudes and beliefs that motivate people to reject, fear, avoid, or discriminate against those with mental illness (Parcesepe & Cabassa 2013).”
BackgroundTrans Prejudice and Its Potential Links to IPV Among Trans People
Anderson, V. N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-44762-5_6 · Cited by 4
Do Specialty Programs for Justice-Involved People With Mental Illness Exacerbate Stigma?
Louden, J. E., Gochyyev, P., & Skeem, J. L. (2020) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854820942825 · Cited by 4
Tsai, C.-H., Kao, Y., & Lien, Y. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17197109 · Cited by 4
“Previous studies have suggested that sociodemographic characteristics, including sex, age and educational attainment, were associated with social distance [15].”
BackgroundBiological diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease and the issue of stigma
Ronchetto, F., & Ronchetto, M. (2021) · Journal of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.36150/2499-6564-n327 · Cited by 4
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“…the globe (Liu et al. 2020; Richter et al. 2019) and improving views about mental health concerns and treatment (Lipson, Lattie, and Eisenberg 2019; Parcesepe and Cabassa 2013), practitioners might capitalize on increasing prospective clients’ impressions about interventions to improve outcomes.”
BackgroundCrowe, A., Mullen, P. R., & Spargo, A. (2020) · Journal of Counseling Research and Practice · doi:10.56702/uckx8598/jcrp0601.2 · Cited by 4
Variables Associated with Quality of Life Among Individuals Living in Permanent Supportive Housing
Armoon, B., L’Espérance, N., & Fleury, M. (2023) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-023-01167-1 · Cited by 4
Abouhala, S., Yakubu, R. A., Snape, L., Dhaurali, S., Welch, F., Enge, C., & Amutah‐Onukagha, N. (2023) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-023-00306-5 · Cited by 5
“Mental health care, especially maternal mental health care, is highly stigmatized in the US [41].”
The Intersections among Race, Religion, and Science in Explaining Mental Health Conditions
Bolger, D., Henderson, A. K., Mabute-Louie, B., & Ecklund, E. H. (2024) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231231225543 · Cited by 4
“…the relationship between race-ethnicity and views of mental health also requires acknowledging the stigma that is often attached to mental illness (Pescosolido 2013), which can be particularly salient in many racial-eth-nic minority communities (Caplan 2019; Parcesepe and Cabassa 2013).”
Abugrin, M., Zagorulko, A., Aboulqassim, B., Raja, A., Thyagaturu, H. S., Khadra, A., Jagadeesan, V. S., & Sinyagovskiy, P. (2024) · Journal of the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography & Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.jscai.2024.102235 · Cited by 4
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Labrum, T., Simonsson, P., & Solomon, P. (2018) · Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s40737-018-0123-3 · Cited by 4
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“Its harmful effects have been well-documented in the literature including prejudice and discrimination by the larger population toward individuals with mental illness (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013; Pescosolido, 2013; Corrigan & Wassel, 2008).”
Development of public stigma scales on alcohol use disorder and substance use disorder
Atlam, D. H., Kaylı, D. Ş., & Durusoy, R. (2023) · Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/15332640.2023.2253172 · Cited by 3
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Hobern, B., Carrotte, E. R., Rehm, I. C., Blanchard, M., & Groot, C. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01346-5 · Cited by 4
“…consistently found that people who experience SZ and SUD are regarded as being more dangerous, unpredictable, and less competent than people who experience other types of mental health conditions (Angermeyer & Dietrich, 2006; Kilian et al., 2021; Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013; Schomerus et al., 2011).”
Mooney, R. (2019) · Journal of Criminological Research Policy and Practice · doi:10.1108/jcrpp-09-2017-0028 · Cited by 3
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Grose‐Fifer, J., & Vidals, D. (2021) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2021.1973556 · Cited by 3
“Our study was motivated by the fact that the general public typically has negative attitudes toward people who are mentally ill (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013; Schomerus et al., 2012).”
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BackgroundA Comparison of Social Exclusion Towards People with Depression or Chronic Back Pain
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Analyzing Twitter Data to Understand Stigmatization of Schizophrenia Before and After Elon Musk
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“More recently, these findings are supported by Abolfotouh et al. (2019) in Saudi Arabia and the systematic reviews of Gaiha et al. (2020) in India and Parcesepe and Cabassa (2013) in the United States.”
Huff, N. R., Arnold, D. H., & Isbell, L. M. (2025) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.70005 · Cited by 3
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Moon, N. Y., Gil, M., & 김석선 (2018) · Health and Social Welfare Review · doi:10.15709/hswr.2018.38.3.161 · Cited by 3
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Robb, J. L. (2015) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 3
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Ng, J. S., & Tandoc, E. C. (2020) · Health & New Media Research · doi:10.22720/hnmr.2020.4.1.003 · Cited by 3
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“…Kelly et al. (2021) study examined the effect of terminology on the American public’s perception of opioid-related impairment collapsing across individual participant characteristics, yet stigmatizing beliefs and attitudes are known to vary between different individuals (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013).”
Bonnevie, E., Diouf, F., Goldbarg, J., Helgenberger, S., Wartella, E. A., Grimm, B. L., Sjolie, S., & Smyser, J. (2024) · The Communication Review · doi:10.1080/10714421.2024.2309853 · Cited by 2
“Public stigma is displayed by members of the general public and can be influenced by various factors, including personal beliefs; individual characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender, or income; and general social stereotypes of mental health (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013).”
BackgroundMental Health Clinical Pastoral Education—A Specialized CPE Program
Zollfrank, A. A., Kaufman, C. C., & Rosmarin, D. H. (2025) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel16070886 · Cited by 2
Beliefs toward mental illness in Turkish physiotherapists
Yıldırım, M., & Balcı, B. (2021) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2020.1870251 · Cited by 2
“…investigating the beliefs toward mental disorders among various populations consisting of the general community and specific study populations (Parcesepe and Cabassa, 2013; Reavley, Mackinnon, Morgan, and CONTACT Meriç Yildirim mericsenduran@hotmail.com Dokuz Eylul University, School of…”
BackgroundMental health and its correlates: perspectives from two countries
Xie, H. (2021) · Mental Health Review Journal · doi:10.1108/mhrj-08-2020-0058 · Cited by 2
Griffiths, M., Tapp, J., Robertson, E., & Moore, E. N. (2022) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2022.2103016 · Cited by 2
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Biagi, N., Ferreira, E. V., & Celeri, E. (2023) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-023-02577-1 · Cited by 2
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Representations of Mental Illness in a Ga Community in Southern Ghana
Dzokoto, V. A. A., Tutu, A. O., Kpobi, L. N. A., Banks, K. H., & Ryder, A. G. (2023) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984231192141 · Cited by 2
“…illness diagnoses predicts discrimination (especially in work and housing); motivates social distance due to often false or exaggerated beliefs and stereotypes; and negatively impacts attitudes towards help-seeking behavior for mental illness (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013; Wainberg et al., 2017).”
Aydin, N., Plewe, M. C., Mahr, L. A. M., & Kleber, J. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14050406 · Cited by 2
“Thus, negative stereotypes and prejudicial beliefs perpetuate assumptions that individuals with mental illness are dangerous, criminal, and lack willpower [45].”
BackgroundOvercoming Stigma: The Human Side of Monkeypox Virus
Umar, T. P., Jain, N., Sayad, R., Tandarto, K., Jain, S., & Reinis, A. (2024) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_25 · Cited by 2
Leveraging social media to enhance celebrity stories for anti-stigma efforts
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Doering, B. K., Gonschor, J., Breen, L. J., & Eisma, M. C. (2024) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2024.100451 · Cited by 2
Exploring structural stigma towards mental disorders: An analysis of trial verdicts
Gu, L., & Ding, H. (2025) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102103 · Cited by 3
Social Anxiety and Quality of Life: Mediating Role of Stigma Perception in Individuals Who Stutter
Rana, H. J., Kausar, R., & Khan, N. (2022) · NUST Journal of Social Sciences and Humannities · doi:10.51732/njssh.v7i2.92 · Cited by 2
“Young adults who experienced severe anxiety symptoms (Parcesepe and Cabassa, 2012) also reported Lower QoL.”
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Exaggerations and Stereotypes of Schizophrenia in Contemporary Films
DeMare, N. (2016) · The Journal of Undergraduate Research · Cited by 2
How Will the Mild Encephalitis Hypothesis of Schizophrenia Influence Stigmatization?
Müller, S., & Riedmüller, R. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00067 · Cited by 2
Ghosts And Guests: A Pastoral Theology Of Belonging For Ministry With Persons With Mental Illness
Whitehead, J. C. (2016) · Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling Advancing theory and professional practice through scholarly and reflective publications · doi:10.1177/1542305016680627 · Cited by 6
“During this same time, there has been an increase in the perception that persons with mental illness are dangerous or incompetent (Parcesepe and Cabassa, 2013).”
BackgroundOudejans, S. C. C., Spits, M., & van Weeghel, J. (2021) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-021-02111-y · Cited by 2
Matto, H. C., Seshaiyer, P., Carmack, S. A., Peixoto, N., & Scherbel, M. (2021) · Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions · doi:10.1080/1533256x.2021.1973833 · Cited by 2
“Additionally, Americans report that they distance themselves both socially and in terms of relationships from those with SUD and that they possess a greater willingness to discriminate on the basis of employment (Barry et al., 2014; Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2012; Pescosolido et al., 1999).”
BackgroundAn examination of the effect of feedback on meta-ignorance of mental illness public stigma
Li, X.-M., Lindsay, B. L., Szeto, A. C. H., & Dobson, K. S. (2022) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-022-09325-8 · Cited by 2
Niriyah, S., Putri, D. K., Wisanti, E., Pradessetia, R., Wulandari, M. A., Anggreny, Y., & Rukmini, E. D. (2023) · Jurnal Abdi Masyarakat Indonesia · doi:10.54082/jamsi.625 · Cited by 2
“Kurangnya pengetahuan masyarakat tentang gangguan jiwa membuat masyarakat membentuk stigma yang buruk terhadap orang dengan gangguan jiwa (Parcesepe and Cabassa, 2013).”
BackgroundDifficulties in Treating Ethnic Minority Children with ADHD and the Role of Mobile Applications
Doulou, A., Drigas, A. S., & Skianis, C. (2023) · International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) · doi:10.3991/ijim.v17i15.39553 · Cited by 1
Subjective Experience on Virtual Reality-Assisted Mental Health Promotion Program
Ko, H., Lim, H. J., Park, J., Kim, K., Suh, H., Lee, B. D., Lee, Y. M., Moon, E., Kim, D.-R., Park, J., et al. (2024) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2023.0286 · Cited by 3
Causal beliefs about depression as predictors of essentialist thinking and in network models
Mann, S. (2018) · doi:10.7282/t3m61pgp · Cited by 2
“…aspects of mental illness stigma, such as perceiving affected individuals as threatening and unpredictable, and responding to them with anger, fear, and social avoidance (e.g., Boysen, 2011; Mehta & Farina, 1997; Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013; Rüsch et al., 2010a; 2010b; Speerforck et al., 2014).”
BackgroundDorfman, D. A. (2020) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764220956695 · Cited by 2
Lotay, A. (2016) · Mspace (University of Manitoba) · Cited by 2
Bhui, K. S. (2015) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.207.3.279 · Cited by 2
Mental Health and Religious Beliefs
Ivey, C. A. S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-38971-9_354-1 · Cited by 2
Experiences of relatives caring for psychiatric patients in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana
Antonio, G., Kwakye, I. N., & Essel, C. (2023) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12701 · Cited by 1
Effects of Media Framing on Perceptions of Mental Illness
Kristofco, L., & Moore, K. F. (2023) · European Modern Studies Journal · doi:10.59573/emsj.7(4).2023.18 · Cited by 1
The Prevalence of Destigmatization of Mental Health in Undergraduate Psychopathology Courses
Becker, J. R., Stiles, D., & Bruce, M. J. (2023) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00986283231212939 · Cited by 1
Wells, K. B., Zhang, L., Saks, E. R., & Bilder, R. M. (2024) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-024-01248-9 · Cited by 2
“This is an important issue as stigma may reduce access to care by affecting behavior of those in need, providers, and others (Henderson et al., 2013; Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013).”
BackgroundAn Evaluation of a Community-Based Mental Health Literacy Intervention for Black Adults
Fussell‐Ware, D. J., Bauer, A. G., Jones, H. A., & Boatwright, J. A. (2024) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/10497315241262950 · Cited by 1
“…a mental illness and receiving treatment for it is a major obstacle for Black people to seek appropriate mental healthcare (Alvidrez et al., 2008, 2010; Brown et al., 2010; Campbell & Mowbray, 2016; Gary, 2005; Nadeem et al., 2007; Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013; Ward et al., 2009; Ward et al., 2013).”
HAYT application: the use of NLP to improve the diagnosis and treatment of anxiety and depression
Amaro, I., Greca, A. D., & Tortora, G. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (BIBM) · doi:10.1109/bibm62325.2024.10822039 · Cited by 2
“Moreover, public stigma and self-stigma associated with mental illnesses are additional barriers to accessing mental health services [10] [11].”
Perceived Anxiety Disorder Stigma: A Predictive Analysis
Nabors, S., Cicchetti, R. J., Szirony, G. M., Blum, C. R., & Banerjee, S. K. (2024) · Journal of Social Behavioral and Health Sciences · doi:10.5590/jsbhs.2024.18.1.20 · Cited by 1
“A person’s level of education may serve as a protective factor against perceived anxiety stigma (Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013).”
BackgroundIs living close to a drug treatment centre associated with stigma?
Bartoll, X., Barbaglia, G., Puigdomènech, E., Clotas, C., Bartrolí, M., & Pérez, K. (2025) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2025.104707 · Cited by 1
AlAteeq, D. A., Altaweel, H., Aljhani, S., Eid, F. A., Almajed, E. H., & Alshammari, A. (2025) · The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine · doi:10.1177/00912174251350472 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Parcesepe, A. M., & Cabassa, L. J.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- New York State Psychiatric Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Parcesepe, Angela M.
- Venue
- Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research
- Published
- 2012-07-26
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 384-399
- ISSN
- 0894-587X (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3289
- PMC
- PMC3835659
- OpenAlex
- W2056883717
- Cited by
- 554
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 64 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 1.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K01 MH09118, K01MH091118, R25MH080916)
- National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (L60 MD001850)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychology and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- public stigma, mental illness, stigma reduction, mental health service utilization, child psychopathology, adults with mental illness, United States
- MeSH terms
- Attitude to Health, Mental Disorders, Humans, Mental Health Services, Prejudice, United States, Social Stigma
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