Visuospatial Performance on an Internet Line Judgment Task and Potential Hormonal Markers: Sex, Sexual Orientation, and 2D:4D
Abstract
We investigated whether performance on a visuospatial line judgment task, the Judgment of Line Angle and Position-15 test (JLAP-15), showed evidence of sensitivity to early sex steroid exposure by examining how it related to sex, as well as to sexual orientation and 2D:4D digit ratios. Participants were drawn from a large Internet study with over 250,000 participants. In the main sample (ages 12-58 years), males outperformed females on the JLAP-15, showing a moderate effect size for sex. In agreement with a prenatal sex hormone hypothesis, line judgment accuracy in adults related to 2D:4D and sexual orientation, both of which are postulated to be influenced by early steroids. In both sexes, better visuospatial performance was associated with lower (more male-typical) digit ratios. For men, heterosexual participants outperformed homosexual/bisexual participants on the JLAP-15 and, for women, homosexual/bisexual participants outperformed heterosexual participants. In children aged 8-10 years, presumed to be a largely prepubertal group, boys also outperformed girls. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that visuospatial ability is influenced by early sex steroids, although they do not rule out alternative explanations or additional influences. More broadly, such results support a prenatal sex hormone hypothesis that degree of androgen exposure may influence the neural circuitry underlying cognition (visuospatial ability) and sexual orientation as well as aspects of…
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Several papers have linked prenatal testosterone to numerical and spatial performance.
“Several papers have linked prenatal testosterone to numerical and spatial performance (e.g., Collaer et al., 2007;Kempel et al., 2005)”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Collaer et al., 2007
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Tcheang, L., Muggleton, N., & Walsh, V. (2013) · Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science · doi:10.4236/jbbs.2013.33029 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Andrade, A. D. S., & Maia, L. (2013) · Cuadernos de Neuropsicologia · doi:10.7714/cnps/7.1.204 · Cited by 1
Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review
Cuppello, S., Zibarras, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2025) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5
Caffarra, P., Rasi, T., Aiello, E., Frisco, F., Luca, G. D., Curti, B., Moreschi, A., Corso, A., Difonzo, T., Lorusso, L., et al. (2026) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877261491986
Richert, E., Pitkänen, M., Jónsdóttir, M. K., Arnardóttir, E., Kainulainen, S., Leppänen, T., Töyräs, J., Korkalainen, H., & Johannsdottir, K. R. (2026) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2026.109312
The vulnerable male brain: Men's spatial abilities are condition-dependent, sexually selected traits
Geary, D. C., Giofrè, D., Collaer, M. L., Lippa, R. A., & Halsey, L. G. (2026) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2026.106901
“Following Collaer et al. (2007), the task assesses visuospatial perception and requires participants to match the angle of the single presented line at the top of the screen to one of 15-line options in an array at the bottom of the screen.”
Self-citationDEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN VERBAL AND VISUOSPATIAL ABILITIES
Barel, E., & Tzischinsky, O. (2019) · Psychological Applications and Trends 2019 · doi:10.36315/2019inpact055
“The most notable influence of sex hormones occurs during sensitive periods in development: prenatal and postnatal (Collaer et al., 2007; Halpern, 2012).”
BackgroundSex Differences in Cognition in Alzheimer's Disease
Irvine, K. (2014) · University of Hertfordshire Research Archive (University of Hertfordshire) · doi:10.18745/th.13879
System Usability Scale Implementation for Interfaces on Mobile Touch Screen Devices Assessment
Čičević, S., Mitrović, S., Nešić, M., & Samcovic, A. (2016) · Advances in wireless technologies and telecommunication book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-9438-5.ch007
- Authors
- Collaer, M. L., Reimers, S., & Manning, J. T.
- Affiliations
- Middlebury College (US)
- University of Warwick (GB)
- University of Lancashire (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Collaer, Marcia L.
- Venue
- Archives of Sexual Behavior
- Published
- 2007-03-23
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 177-192
- ISSN
- 0004-0002 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2800
- OpenAlex
- W2028652993
- Cited by
- 104
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 3.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Archives of Sexual Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Keywords
- visuospatial ability, 2D:4D digit ratio, sexual orientation, sex differences, androgen exposure, children
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anthropometry, Female, Fingers, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reference Values, Space Perception, Testosterone, Visual Perception, Reproducibility of Results, Sex Distribution, Homosexuality, Male, Homosexuality, Female, Sexuality, Heterosexuality, Internet
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