Microglia polarization in nociplastic pain: mechanisms and perspectives

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Neuropathic Pain: From Mechanisms to Treatment

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Fibromyalgia: A Clinical Review

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Neuroinflammation and Central Sensitization in Chronic and Widespread Pain

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Nociplastic pain: towards an understanding of prevalent pain conditions

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From Homeostasis to Neuroinflammation: Insights into Cellular and Molecular Interactions and Network Dynamics

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Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, Nociception, and Pain

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The dual role of microglia in neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury: Detrimental and protective effects

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Immunological Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies in Cerebral Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury: From Inflammatory Response to Neurorepair

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Targeting Members of the Chemokine Family as a Novel Approach to Treating Neuropathic Pain

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Targeting persistently activated inflammatory microenvironment to promote chronic wound healing

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Fisetin Promotes Functional Recovery after Spinal Cord Injury by Inhibiting Microglia/Macrophage M1 Polarization and JAK2/STAT3 Signaling Pathway

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Spinal AT1R contributes to neuroinflammation and neuropathic pain via NOX2-dependent redox signaling in microglia

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Potential targets of microglia in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases: Mechanism and therapeutic implications

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( +)-Catechin Alleviates CCI-Induced Neuropathic Pain by Modulating Microglia M1 and M2 Polarization via the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Jing, B., Zhao, J.-J., Chen, Z., Si, W., Chang, S.-Q., Zheng, Y., Zhuang, Z.-F., Zhao, G., & Zhang, D. (2025) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-025-10202-9 · Cited by 33

Glial polarization in neurological diseases: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities

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Targeting α7-nAChR by galantamine mitigates reserpine-induced fibromyalgia-like symptoms in rats: Involvement of cAMP/PKA, PI3K/AKT, and M1/M2 microglia polarization

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How to understand the overlap of long COVID, chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis, fibromyalgia and irritable bowel syndromes

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Exosomes derived from M2-type microglia ameliorate oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-induced HT22 cell injury by regulating miR-124-3p/NCOA4-mediated ferroptosis

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Interactions and Trends of Interleukins, PAI-1, CRP, and TNF-α in Inflammatory Responses during the Perioperative Period of Joint Arthroplasty: Implications for Pain Management—A Narrative Review

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Sigma-1 Receptor Inhibition Reduces Mechanical Allodynia and Modulate Neuroinflammation in Chronic Neuropathic Pain

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Neural and immune roles in osteoarthritis pain: Mechanisms and intervention strategies

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New Insight into Neuropathic Pain: The Relationship between α7nAChR, Ferroptosis, and Neuroinflammation

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Intrathecal lactate dehydrogenase A inhibitors FX11 and oxamate alleviate chronic constriction injury-induced nociceptive sensitization through neuroinflammation and angiogenesis

Cheng, H., Chen, N., Chen, W.-F., Wu, Z., Sun, Y., Teng, W.-N., Su, F.-W., Sung, C., & Wen, Z. (2024) · The Journal of Headache and Pain · doi:10.1186/s10194-024-01916-x · Cited by 22

Molecular Mechanisms of Chronic Pain and Therapeutic Interventions

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Irisin alleviates CFA-induced inflammatory pain by modulating macrophage polarization and spinal glial cell activation

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Glycolytic reprogramming during microglial polarization in neurological diseases

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Intranasal Delivery of circATF7IP siRNA via Lipid Nanoparticles Alleviates LPS‐induced Depressive‐Like Behaviors

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Central Sensitization and Nociplastic Pain: Shared Mechanisms in Fibromyalgia, Osteoarthritis, and Inflammatory Arthritis

Hladkykh, F. V., Liadova, T., Matvieienko, M. S., Komorovsky, R., Smiyan, S., & Student, V. (2026) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s571311 · Cited by 22

Redox Regulation of Immunometabolism in Microglia Underpinning Diabetic Retinopathy

Cai, L., Xia, M., & Zhang, F. (2024) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox13040423 · Cited by 19

Assessing Risk Factors and Comorbidities in the Treatment of Chronic Pain: A Narrative Review

Hebert, S. V., Green, M. A., Mashaw, S. A., Brouillette, W. D., Nguyen, A., Dufrene, K., Shelvan, A., Patil, S. S., Ahmadzadeh, S., Shekoohi, S., et al. (2024) · Current Pain and Headache Reports · doi:10.1007/s11916-024-01249-z · Cited by 23

How to Distinguish Non-Inflammatory from Inflammatory Pain in RA?

Khot, S., Tackley, G., & Choy, E. (2024) · Current Rheumatology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11926-024-01159-4 · Cited by 22

Stroke: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Signaling Pathways, and Clinical Management

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CTRP9 attenuates peripheral nerve injury-induced mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia through regulating spinal microglial polarization and neuroinflammation mediated by AdipoR1 in male mice

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Mechanisms of Cancer-Induced Bone Pain

Wang, X., Li, L., & Wang, Y. (2025) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s498466 · Cited by 19

Progress in treatment of pathological neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury

Li, J., Kang, W., Wang, X., & Pan, F. (2024) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2024.1430288 · Cited by 15

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 derived from the cerebrospinal fluid in patients with postherpetic neuralgia induces allodynia via the crosstalk between microglia and astrocyte

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Possible Interaction of Suramin with Thalamic P2X Receptors and NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation Alleviates Reserpine-Induced Fibromyalgia-Like Symptoms

Mohamed, M. M., Zaki, H. F., & Kamel, A. S. E. D. (2025) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-025-10207-4 · Cited by 14

Do cytokines play a role in the transition from acute to chronic musculoskeletal pain?

Ebersberger, A., & Schaible, H. (2025) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2025.107585 · Cited by 14

Novel Trajectories Towards Possible Effects of Semaglutide for Amelioration of Reserpine-induced Fibromyalgia in Rats: Contribution of cAMP/PKA/p-CREB and M1/M2 Microglia Polarization

Shafiek, M. Z., Zaki, H. F., Mohamed, A. F., & Ibrahim, W. W. (2025) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-025-10196-4 · Cited by 12

Microglia’s Phenotypic Heterogeneity in Pain Pathogenesis and Electroacupuncture Analgesia: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential

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Pain in axial spondyloarthritis: role of the JAK/STAT pathway

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Macrophage: A key player in neuropathic pain

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Butyrate attenuates sympathetic activation in rats with chronic heart failure by inhibiting microglial inflammation in the paraventricular nucleus

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Pharmacotherapy for osteoarthritis-related pain: current and emerging therapies

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Acupressure attenuates fibromyalgia central sensitization via MAPK phosphorylation-mediated neuroinflammation regulation

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Therapeutic potential of targeting novel signaling pathways in regulating chronic inflammation in obstructive lung disorders

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Non-neuronal cells act as crucial players in neuropathic orofacial pain

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GDF11 Mitigates Neuropathic Pain via Regulation of Microglial Polarization and Neuroinflammation through TGF-βR1/SMAD2/NF-κB Pathway in Male Mice

Liu, T., & Zhang, L. (2025) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-025-10172-y · Cited by 12

MDL800, a SIRT6 activator, mitigates neuroinflammation-induced retinal damage by modulating microglial M1/M2 polarization in experimental glaucoma

Hu, F., Zhang, D., & Wu, J. (2025) · Cellular Signalling · doi:10.1016/j.cellsig.2025.111832 · Cited by 10

BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway and WDR neurons: Core factors inducing central sensitization of neuropathic pain

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Spi1 aggravates neuropathic pain by modulating Clec7a-mediated neuroinflammation and microglial phagocytosis

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Modafinil Ameliorated Fibromyalgia Syndrome in Rats by Modulating Mast Cells and Microglia Activation Through Dopamine/Substance P/MRGPRX/Histamine and PI3K/p-Akt/NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Kamal, M.-A. M., Essam, R. M., Abdelkader, N. F., & Zaki, H. F. (2025) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-025-10194-6 · Cited by 10

JNK in inflammation and lipid metabolism regulation in atherosclerosis

Tang, D., Yao, Y., Xiang, X., Cui, J., Tang, H., & Huang, H. (2025) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2025.115307 · Cited by 9

Chemokine CCL2 Mediates Neuroglial Crosstalk and Drives Chronic Pain Pathogenesis

Lu, J., Shi, Y., Li, Y., Niu, Z., Wu, S., Luo, C., & Xie, R. (2025) · Neuroscience Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s12264-025-01519-9 · Cited by 10

Histone deacetylases: the critical enzymes for microglial activation involved in neuropathic pain

Ding, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2025.1515787 · Cited by 8

In situ piezoelectricity induces M2 polarization of macrophages to regulate Schwann cells for alleviating neuropathic pain of CCI rats

Wei, G., Chen, C., Li, X., Wang, H., Li, Z., Gou, X., & Zhang, P. (2025) · Biomaterials Advances · doi:10.1016/j.bioadv.2025.214319 · Cited by 8

The pivotal role of central sensitization in long COVID, fibromyalgia and myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome

Goldenberg, D. L. (2025) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2025.2516097 · Cited by 9

An Overview of the Mechanisms Involved in Neuralgia

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Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for fibromyalgia-like syndrome in patients with Long-COVID: a pilot randomized clinical trial

Zulbaran‐Rojas, A., Bara, R. O., Lee, M., Bargas-Ochoa, M., Phan, T., Pacheco, M., Flores‐Camargo, A., Kazmi, S. M., Rouzi, M. D., Modi, D., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-78651-5 · Cited by 9

Applying Lessons From Rheumatology to Better Understand Long COVID

Goldenberg, D. L. (2023) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/acr.25210 · Cited by 8

The Immune-Centric Revolution Translated into Clinical Application: Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell (PBMNC) Therapy in Diabetic Patients with No-Option Critical Limb-Threatening Ischemia (NO-CLTI)—Rationale and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

Rehak, L., Giurato, L., Monami, M., Meloni, M., Scatena, A., Panunzi, A., Manti, G. M., Caravaggi, C. M. F., & Uccioli, L. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13237230 · Cited by 10

The putative role of immune-inflammatory mechanisms in nociplastic pain pathways: a narrative review

Giglio, M., Corriero, A., Preziosa, A., Varrassi, G., & Puntillo, F. (2025) · Exploration of Immunology · doi:10.37349/ei.2025.1003178 · Cited by 8

HMGB1 promotes LPS-induced M1 polarization and apoptosis in microglia by mediating the expression of immune and inflammation-related genes

Zhao, L., Huang, Q., Li, N., Lin, W., Cui, X., Yang, F., Ma, L., Zhang, H., & Ma, H. (2025) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2025.111615 · Cited by 7

Microglial Activation in Nociplastic Pain: From Preclinical Models to PET Neuroimaging and Implications for Targeted Therapeutic Strategies

Coluzzi, F., Zeboudj, L., Scerpa, M. S., Giorgio, A., Blasi, R. D., Malcangio, M., & Rocco, M. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms262411861 · Cited by 7

Neuroimmune circuits in respiratory pathophysiology: decoding molecular crosstalk for precision therapeutic targeting

Chen, Q., Jia, N., Liu, J., Xu, C., Shen, Z., Shi, S., Wang, F., & Wang, Z. (2026) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.1080/07853890.2026.2620337 · Cited by 9

Comparison between Conditioned Pain Modulation Paradigms Using Cold Pressor Conditioning Stimulus versus Ischemic Pressure Stimulus in Women with Fibromyalgia and Its Impact on Clinical Status: A Cross-Sectional Study

Riquelme-Aguado, V., González-Álvarez, M. E., Campo, A. Z.-D., Fernández‐Carnero, J., Crujera, A. G., Gómez‐Esquer, F., & Villafañe, J. H. (2024) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines12102222 · Cited by 7

Sinomenine Ameliorated Microglial Activation and Neuropathic Pain After Chronic Constriction Injury Via TGF ‐β1/ ALK5 /Smad3 Signalling Pathway

Ling, L., Luo, M., Yin, H., Tian, Y., Wang, T., Zhang, B., Yin, L., Zhang, Y., & Bian, J. (2024) · Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1111/jcmm.70214 · Cited by 7

Focus on P2X7R in microglia: its mechanism of action and therapeutic prospects in various neuropathic pain models

Zhang, K., Ran, R., Zhang, C., Wang, L., & Zhang, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2025.1555732 · Cited by 6

Targeting neuroimmune pathways in chronic pain: clinical insights and immunotherapeutic prospects

Zhai, Y., Y, J., Wang, S., Fu, D., Zhai, Y., Huang, S., & Zhao, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1823031 · Cited by 6

Lycium barbarum glycopeptide alleviates retinal inflammation by suppressing microglial M1 polarization via NF-κB/MAPK pathways

Ou, Y., Huang, Y., Yang, X., Li, L., Mei, R., Yu, Z., So, K., Chen, J., Hongjie, J., & Tang, S. (2025) · Experimental Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.exer.2025.110452 · Cited by 6

Mitigating organophosphate nerve agent, soman (GD), induced long-term neurotoxicity: Saracatinib, a Src Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor, as a potential countermeasure

Massey, N., Vasanthi, S. S., Holtkamp, C., Meyer, C., Rao, N. S., Gimenez-Lirola, L. G., Wang, C., Im, H., Bevoor, A. S., Kannurpatti, S. S., et al. (2025) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-025-03520-5 · Cited by 5

Plasma Pro‐ and Anti‐Inflammatory Cytokines in an Observational Chronic Low Back Pain Cohort

Enrico, V. T., Anderst, W. J., Bell, K. M., Coelho, J. P., Darwin, J., Delitto, A., Greco, C. M., Lee, J. Y., McKernan, G., Patterson, C. G., et al. (2025) · JOR Spine · doi:10.1002/jsp2.70095 · Cited by 5

FKBP5-CCL5 interaction promotes neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis in ischemic stroke by regulating the MAPK pathway and enhancing NET formation

Li, Z., Yin, T., Guo, H., Liu, Z., Wang, P., Liu, C., Wang, Q., Zhang, M., Xiao, Y., Wang, J., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.1609989 · Cited by 5

Pain mechanism and management strategy of rheumatoid arthritis

Wang, D., Li, T., Wang, W. Y., Ruan, Y., Cai, J., & Yan, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Pain Research · doi:10.3389/fpain.2025.1693399 · Cited by 6

Acute sleep deprivation induces hyperalgesia through P2X4-mediated microglial activation in mice

Huang, S., Cheng, W., Lai, P., Liu, X., Peng, S., Yang, X., & Du, X. (2025) · European journal of medical research · doi:10.1186/s40001-025-03326-4 · Cited by 5

Study on the Mechanisms of Glrα3 in Pain Sensitization of Endometriosis

Fan, P., Liu, R., Li, Y., Wang, S., & Li, T. X. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25158143 · Cited by 5

A novel postoperative delayed neurocognitive recovery model established based on preoperative rapid eye movement sleep deprivation in adult mice

Liu, K., Hong, J., Li, Y., Wang, Q., Dong, R., Liu, T., Guo, X., Chen, L., & Li, Z. (2025) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2025.114508 · Cited by 5

Effect of Microglial Activity on Gut Microbiota in Rats with Neuropathic Pain

Hong, S., Piao, L., Cho, E.-H., Seo, E., & Kim, S.-H. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26115181 · Cited by 5

Mechanism of Qingjie Fuzheng Granules in inhibiting colitis associated colorectal cancer by regulating TLR4 and IL-4R mediated macrophage polarization

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Nociplastic pain: the prominent role of non-neuronal cells in central and peripheral sensitization

Lai, W., Tang, X., Chen, S., Zhou, Y., Qi, Z., Cao, M., Yuan, C., Yu, J., & Wen, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1677310 · Cited by 4

Inflammation and pain as interconnected targets in axial spondyloarthritis

Baraliakos, X., Navarro‐Compán, V., Ziadé, N., & Poddubnyy, D. (2026) · Nature Reviews Rheumatology · doi:10.1038/s41584-025-01348-0 · Cited by 4

Combining Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation With Non-Invasive Interventions for Chronic Primary Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Aranha, R. E. L. D. B., do Nascimento, J. D. S., Sampaio, D. D. A., & Alves, N. T. (2024) · Neurorehabilitation and neural repair · doi:10.1177/15459683241265906 · Cited by 4

Efficacy and safety of low-dose naltrexone for the management of fibromyalgia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials with trial sequential analysis

Vatvani, A. D., Patel, P., Hariyanto, T. I., & Yanto, T. A. (2024) · The Korean journal of pain · doi:10.3344/kjp.24202 · Cited by 4

RIN1 regulates ferroptosis and nociceptive perception via the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in chronic constriction injury

Lin, X., Li, X., Hong, S., Zhou, Q., & You, S. (2025) · Cellular Signalling · doi:10.1016/j.cellsig.2025.111784 · Cited by 4

Prevotella histicola suppress olfactory bulb damage caused by LPS-induced rhinitis in mice

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