The DOI matches its Crossref record; 31 of the 31 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A Qualitative Exploration of the Female Experience of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Open accessAbstract
Autism spectrum disorder is thought to be a predominantly male diagnosis, however recent research suggests a smaller gender disparity in prevalence than previously assumed. Accounts of the female experience of autism are important to help reduce likely male-bias in current understanding and recognition of autism. Eighteen autistic females and four mothers of autistic females took part in discussions with a topic guide around diagnosis, impact and coping. A thematic analysis was conducted. Five themes were identified: fitting in the with the norm, potential obstacles for autistic women and girls, negative aspects of autism, the perspective of others, and positive aspects of having autism. We hope that greater understanding of the experiences of autistic females may lead to improved awareness, diagnosis and support for women and girls.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“this has been suggested as a key reason why females may not come to clinical attention and may fail to reach diagnostic thresholds during assessments (Milner et al. 2019).”
From Barriers to Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis for Young Women and Girls: a Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as Milner et al. 2019
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Girls may either intentionally or unconsciously ‘mask’ their social communication difficulties when in social situations (e.g. at school)”
From Barriers to Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis for Young Women and Girls: a Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as Milner et al. 2019
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Indeed, black and white thinking may underlie some of the perceived strengths of autism, such as a strong sense of justice [5], by forcing binary judgements and subsequent beliefs and positions about ethical situations.”
From Autistic Cognition: Charting Routes to Anxiety (2021) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“The fact that girls may be better able than boys to compensate for, or adapt to, aspects of ASD characteristics, described as the ‘camouflage’ hypothesis, has been increasingly documented in the literature (e.g. Hull et al. 2020; Milner et al. 2019).”
From Barriers to Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis for Young Women and Girls: a Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as Milner et al. 2019
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Using thematic analysis in psychology
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006) · Qualitative Research in Psychology · doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa · Cited by 194,414
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM)
Leong, F. T. L. (2008) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412963978.n182 · Cited by 10,861
What Is the Male-to-Female Ratio in Autism Spectrum Disorder? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Loomes, R., Hull, L., & Mandy, W. P. L. (2017) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2017.03.013 · Cited by 2,804
Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders in a Total Population Sample
Kim, Y. S., Leventhal, B. L., Koh, Y.-J., Fombonne, E., Laska, E., Lim, E.-C., Cheon, K.-A., Kim, S.-J., Kim, Y.-K., Lee, H., et al. (2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10101532 · Cited by 1,524
“Putting on My Best Normal”: Social Camouflaging in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions
Hull, L., Petrides, K. V., Allison, C., Smith, P., Baron-Cohen, S., Lai, M.-C., & Mandy, W. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 · Cited by 1,365
Sex/Gender Differences and Autism: Setting the Scene for Future Research
Lai, M.-C., Lombardo, M. V., Auyeung, B., Chakrabarti, B., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2015) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.10.003 · Cited by 1,120
Bargiela, S., Steward, R., & Mandy, W. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2872-8 · Cited by 1,087
What should autism research focus upon? Community views and priorities from the United Kingdom
Pellicano, E., Dinsmore, A., & Charman, T. (2014) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361314529627 · Cited by 800
Understanding the reasons, contexts and costs of camouflaging for autistic adults
Cage, E., & Troxell-Whitman, Z. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-03878-x · Cited by 661
A behavioral comparison of male and female adults with high functioning autism spectrum conditions
Lai, M.-C., Lombardo, M. V., Pasco, G., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Wheelwright, S. J., Sadek, S. A., Chakrabarti, B., MRC AIMS Consortium, & Baron-Cohen, S. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020835 · Cited by 650
Dworzynski, K., Ronald, A., Bolton, P., & Happé, F. (2012) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.05.018 · Cited by 633
The Complete Guide to Asperger’s Syndrome
McKenzie, K. (2007) · Learning Disability Practice · doi:10.7748/ldp.10.2.26.s17 · Cited by 567
Dean, M., Harwood, R., & Kasari, C. (2017) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361316671845 · Cited by 566
Heritability of Autism Spectrum Disorder in a UK Population-Based Twin Sample
Colvert, E., Tick, B., McEwen, F., Stewart, C., Curran, S. R., Woodhouse, E., Gillan, N., Hallett, V., Lietz, S., Garnett, T., et al. (2015) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.3028 · Cited by 560
Self-citationDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
Matsuno, E. G. (2024) · The SAGE Encyclopedia of LGBTQ Studies · doi:10.4135/9781071891414.n132 · Cited by 527
A Review of the Role of Female Gender in Autism Spectrum Disorders
Kirkovski, M., Enticott, P. G., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1811-1 · Cited by 454
Sex differences in the evaluation and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders among children
Giarelli, E., Wiggins, L. D., Rice, C. E., Levy, S. E., Kirby, R. S., Pinto-Martin, J., & Mandell, D. (2010) · Disability and Health Journal · doi:10.1016/j.dhjo.2009.07.001 · Cited by 398
The Complete Guide to Asperger’s Syndrome
Attwood, T. (2007) · Jessica Kingsley Publishers eBooks · doi:10.5040/9781805014300 · Cited by 357
Looking behind the mask: Social coping strategies of girls on the autistic spectrum
Tierney, S., Burns, J., & Kilbey, E. (2016) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.11.013 · Cited by 316
Sedgewick, F., Hill, V., Yates, R., Pickering, L., & Pellicano, E. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2669-1 · Cited by 304
The experiences and needs of female adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder
Baldwin, S., & Costley, D. (2016) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361315590805 · Cited by 248
Cridland, E. K., Jones, S. C., Caputi, P., & Magee, C. A. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1985-6 · Cited by 230
Kopp, S., & Gillberg, C. (1992) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/bf02091791 · Cited by 193
Cook, A., Ogden, J., & Winstone, N. (2018) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2017.1312797 · Cited by 178
Kanfiszer, L., Davies, F., & Collins, S. (2017) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361316687987 · Cited by 143
A qualitative study of the service experiences of women with autism spectrum disorder
Tint, A., & Weiss, J. (2018) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361317702561 · Cited by 128
McVey, A. J., Dolan, B. K., Willar, K. S., Pleiss, S. S., Karst, J. S., Casnar, C. L., Caiozzo, C. N., Vogt, E. M., Gordon, N. S., & Hecke, A. V. V. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2911-5 · Cited by 119
Autism, females, and the DSM-5: Gender bias in autism diagnosis
Haney, J. L. (2015) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15332985.2015.1031858 · Cited by 113
Challenges of Females with Autism: A Parental Perspective
Mademtzi, M., Singh, P., Shic, F., & Koenig, K. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3341-8 · Cited by 54
Maternal experience raising girls with autism spectrum disorder: a qualitative study
Navot, N., Jorgenson, A. G., & Webb, S. J. (2017) · Child: Care, Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12470 · Cited by 48
Commentary: Critical considerations for studying low‐functioning autism
Chakrabarti, B. (2017) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12720 · Cited by 24
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Gould, J., & Ashton-Smith, J. (2011). Missed diagnosis or misdiagnosis? Girls and women on the autism spectrum. Good Autism Practice (GAP), 12(1), 34–41.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Female Autism Phenotype and Camouflaging: a Narrative Review
Hull, L., Petrides, K. V., & Mandy, W. (2020) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-020-00197-9 · Cited by 614
Barriers to Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis for Young Women and Girls: a Systematic Review
Lockwood Estrin, G., Milner, V., Spain, D., Happé, F., & Colvert, E. (2021) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-020-00225-8 · Cited by 444
“The fact that girls may be better able than boys to compensate for, or adapt to, aspects of ASD characteristics, described as the ‘camouflage’ hypothesis, has been increasingly documented in the literature (e.g. Hull et al. 2020; Milner et al. 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLeedham, A. T., Thompson, A. R., Smith, R. S., & Freeth, M. (2019) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361319853442 · Cited by 443
Is social camouflaging associated with anxiety and depression in autistic adults?
Hull, L., Levy, L., Lai, M.-C., Petrides, K. V., Baron-Cohen, S., Allison, C., Smith, P., & Mandy, W. (2021) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-021-00421-1 · Cited by 337
Beck, J. S., Lundwall, R. A., Gabrielsen, T., Cox, J. C., & South, M. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320912147 · Cited by 224
Metadata
- Authors
- Milner, V., McIntosh, H., Colvert, E., & Happé, F.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Milner, Victoria
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2019-02-21
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 2389-2402
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- PMC
- PMC6546643
- OpenAlex
- W2917614824
- Cited by
- 262
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 15.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/M011488/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, autistic women, autistic girls, lived experience, diagnosis, coping, gender bias, mothers of autistic children, autism awareness
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Child, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Mothers, Sex Characteristics, Thinking, Prevalence, Qualitative Research, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
