Executive Function Among Preschool Children: Unitary Versus Distinct Abilities
Open accessAbstract
Working memory (WM) and inhibitory control (IC) are considered related but separable executive functions (EFs) among adults and adolescents. Although available evidence suggests that these constructs have not diverged especially among younger preschool children, questions remain regarding the age at which separable factors emerge. This study used confirmatory factor analysis to test a 2-factor model of EF among 289 preschool children whose ages ranged from 45 to 63 months (M = 55.74, SD = 7.56). As hypothesized, the model including separate but related factors provided a significantly better fit than a unitary model, indicating the presence of distinct WM and IC factors. Based on evidence that WM and IC measured during preschool relate differently to a variety of academic and behavioral outcomes, it was hypothesized that a model including separate factors for each EF would fit the observed data better than a single-factor model. Although the two-factor model provided the best fit for the full sample, the correlation between WM and IC factors was significantly higher for younger (ϕ =.95) than older (ϕ =.68) children, indicating increasing divergence as a function of age.
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Factor analytic and theoretical work provides the most empirical support for models that include two primary executive function domains in early and middle childhood: working memory and inhibitory control.
“factor analytic and theoretical work provides the most empirical support for models that include two primary executive function domains in early and middle childhood: working memory and inhibitory control (Karr et al., 2018; Lerner & Lonigan, 2014; St. Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006).”
From Executive functioning rating scales: Ecologically valid or construct invalid? (2020) · cites this paper as Lerner & Lonigan, 2014
The Results (Dimensionality of Executive Functions; page unavailable) report that a two-factor model separating working memory and inhibitory control fit the preschool data better than a one-factor model, while a tested three-factor model did not improve fit. The study examined children aged 45–63 months, so it does not establish that this model has the most empirical support across early and middle childhood. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWhen ADHD symptoms are controlled in ASD samples, working memory effect sizes remain medium for verbal (d=0.53) and spatial (d=0.50) tests.
“When ADHD symptoms are controlled for among ASD samples, effect sizes remain medium for verbal (d=0.53) and spatial tests (d=0.50).42,65”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
The Method > Measures passage describes working-memory tasks, and Results > Descriptive Statistics and Preliminary Analyses reports task correlations in preschool children; neither addresses ASD samples with ADHD symptoms controlled. Searches for ASD, ADHD-adjusted working-memory effects, and d=0.53/d=0.50 found no passage reporting the claimed effect sizes. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStudies including both ADHD and ASD groups consistently report substantial working memory impairments relative to neurotypical peers across both groups.
“Studies that include both ADHD and ASD groups consistently report substantial impairments on tests intended to measure working memory relative to neurotypically developing peers across both groups.42,68,71”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
The Method > Participants section describes a general preschool sample, not ADHD, ASD, and neurotypical comparison groups. The Discussion mentions a prior ADHD study only in relation to the distinction between working memory and inhibitory control; it does not report working-memory impairments in either diagnostic group relative to peers. Searches for ASD, ADHD, and group comparisons found no passage supporting the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAccording to a review of 34 meta-analyses, youth with ADHD show medium-magnitude non-specific executive functioning deficits compared with neurotypical youth (d=0.45), with larger deficits in children (d≈0.50) than adolescents (d≤0.30).
“According to a review of 34 meta-analyses, youth with ADHD exhibit medium-magnitude deficits compared to neurotypical youth on non-specific executive functioning (d=0.45), with larger deficits among children (d≈0.50) than adolescents (d≤0.30).”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
The Academic and Behavioral Correlates of EFs section discusses executive functions in preschool children, and the References list includes a study of preschool children with ADHD. Neither those passages nor searches for the 34 meta-analyses and the stated effect sizes yielded a passage reporting the claimed review, d=0.45, or the child–adolescent comparison. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredComparable meta-analytic effect sizes have been found among preschoolers with ADHD (d=0.32-0.64).
“Comparable meta-analytic effect sizes have been identified among preschoolers with ADHD (d=0.32–0.64).42”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
The Discussion mentions a study of executive-function structure in preschool children diagnosed with ADHD, but does not report meta-analytic effect sizes. Searches for the claimed range (d=0.32–0.64) and ADHD meta-analysis found no passage in our copy stating it. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Youth with either ADHD or ASD show impaired inhibitory control test performance compared with neurotypically developing peers.
“Youth with either ADHD or ASD demonstrate impaired performance on tests intended to measure inhibitory control compared to neurotypically developing peers.42,67,68,70”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
The Method > Measures section describes inhibitory-control tests, and the Discussion > Importance of Executive Functions During Preschool discusses poorer performance among children rated high in aggressive behavior. Neither passage compares youth with ADHD or ASD against neurotypically developing peers. Searches for ADHD, ASD, and autism found references to those conditions but no passage establishing the claimed comparison; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredYouth with ASD show worse set shifting than youth with ADHD and co-occurring ADHD and ASD, but some studies find no group differences and one study found better performance in ASD than in neurotypical and co-occurring peers.
“Youth with ASD also show worse set shifting compared to youth with ADHD69 and co-occurring ADHD and ASD;72 however, some studies show no group differences42 and one study observed better performance among youth with ASD compared to neurotypical and co-occurring ADHD and ASD peers.71”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
Citation 42 is attached to the claim that some studies found no group differences in set shifting. The Current Study and Discussion > Limitations sections say this paper examined working memory and inhibitory control in preschool children and did not measure shifting. A search for ASD–ADHD set-shifting comparisons found no passage addressing the cited claim; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThere is some, albeit limited and mixed, evidence suggesting that ADHD might be more strongly associated with difficulties on tests of the action restraint component of inhibitory control than ASD.
“there is some, albeit still limited and mixed, evidence suggesting that ADHD might be more strongly associated with difficulties on tests of the action restraint (preventing a behavior before it starts) component of inhibitory control than ASD.42,69,71,72,82”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
The Method > Measures section defines response-suppression tasks as requiring children to refrain from a dominant response, but it does not link performance on those tasks to ADHD or ASD. Searches for ADHD, ASD, and their comparative association with inhibitory control found no passage in our copy addressing whether ADHD is more strongly associated with action-restraint difficulties than ASD. No page numbers were provided for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.74)
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References 75 · Cited by 110
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Muthén LK Muthén BO Mplus User's Guide 1998–2011 Sixth Edition Los Angeles, CA Muthén & Muthén
- Wechsler D Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—4th Edition (WISC-IV®) 2003 San Antonio, TX Pearson
- Authors
- Lerner, M. D., & Lonigan, C. J.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lerner, Matthew D.
- Venue
- Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment
- Published
- 2014-05-15
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 626-639
- ISSN
- 0164-0305 (ISSN-L)
- 0882-2689
- 1573-3505
- PMC
- PMC4306461
- OpenAlex
- W2022532828
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 7.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Institute of Education Sciences
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P50HD052120)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- executive function, working memory, inhibitory control, preschool children, factor structure, age differences, cognitive development
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