Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder

May combine two claims.

Working memory impairments remain notable among youth with ASD when ADHD symptoms are controlled and among individuals without co-occurring ADHD.

“Impairments on tests intended to measure working memory remain notable among youth with ASD when controlling for symptoms of ADHD65 and among individuals without co-occurring ADHD.66 67”

• cites [65] Yerys, B. E. et al. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms moderate cognition and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res. 2, 322–333 (2009). sourceDisputed

  The Results (Executive Control; page not available) report a significant verbal working-memory deficit for the ASD+ADHD group versus typically developing children, but no significant group differences in spatial working memory. The Discussion (Executive Control; page not available) suggests that the verbal deficit may be unique to the ASD+ADHD group, contrary to the claim that working-memory impairments remain notable when ADHD symptoms are accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [66] Karalunas, S. L. et al. Overlapping and distinct cognitive impairments in attention-deficit/hyperactivity and autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 46, 1705–1716 (2018). sourceSupported
• cites [67] Craig, F. et al. A review of executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiat. Dis. Treat. 12, 1191–1202 (2016).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Executive function abilities develop exponentially in early childhood, with working memory and inhibitory control becoming separable in preschool and early school-aged children, and set shifting emerging as a unique ability in late adolescence or early adulthood.

“executive function abilities continue to develop exponentially in early childhood,24 with working memory and inhibitory control becoming separable abilities in preschool and early school-aged children,21,25,26 and set shifting emerging as a unique ability in late adolescence or early adulthood.21”

• cites [21] Baddeley, A. Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 63, 1–29 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [24] Patros, C. H. et al. Visuospatial working memory underlies choice-impulsivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Res. Dev. Disabil. 38, 134–144 (2015). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [25] Singh, L. J., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Chan, E. S. & Kofler, M. J. Central executive training for ADHD: effects on academic achievement, productivity, and success in the classroom. Neuropsychology 36, 330–345 (2022). sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [26] Demaray, M. K. & Jenkins, L. N. Relations among academic enablers and academic achievement in children with and without high levels of parent-rated symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Psychol. Sch. 48, 573–586 (2011). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the unity and diversity model, unity refers to correlations among the three components that are presumed to reflect a common underlying ability, while diversity acknowledges that the components are also unique and separable.

“‘Unity’ in this model refers to correlations between the three components, which are presumed to reflect a common underlying ability, whereas ‘diversity’ acknowledges that the components are also unique and separable.22”

• cites [22] Wiemers, E. A. & Redick, T. S. Working memory capacity and intra-individual variability of proactive control. Acta Psychol. 182, 21–31 (2018). sourceCould not verify

  The Discussion and Results passages address working memory capacity and proactive control, not the unity and diversity model. Searches for “unity,” “diversity,” and the claimed correlations among three components found no passage in our copy that explains those terms. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Social difficulties in ASD appear to reflect deficits in social knowledge that lead to social disengagement, isolation, and indifference to social cues.

“the social difficulties in ASD seem to reflect deficits in social knowledge10 that result in social disengagement, isolation, and indifference to social cues11,12”

• cites [10] Pedreño, C., Pousa, E., Navarro, J., Pàmias, M. & Obiols, J. Exploring the components of advanced theory of mind in autism spectrum disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47, 2401–2409 (2017). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [11] Grzadzinski, R., Dick, C., Lord, C. & Bishop, S. Parent-reported and clinician-observed autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): implications for practice under DSM-5. Molec. Autism 7, 7 (2016). sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Individual items/symptoms; page unavailable) identify social-communication behaviors that differentiated children with ASD from children with ADHD. The paper does not attribute those difficulties to deficits in social knowledge or say that such deficits lead to disengagement, isolation, or indifference to social cues; searches for those terms found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [12] Locke, J., Shih, W., Kretzmann, M. & Kasari, C. Examining playground engagement between elementary school children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Autism 20, 653–662 (2016). sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Social network centrality descriptive data; page unavailable) report more isolated or peripheral children in the ASD group, and the Discussion reports less joint playground engagement than among matched peers. The paper does not link these patterns to deficits in social knowledge or establish indifference to social cues; the Discussion instead reports frequent responses to peers. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The unity and diversity model proposes three interrelated but uniquely specific and separable executive function components: working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting.

“the unity and diversity model18— proposes that there are three interrelated but uniquely specific and separable executive function components: working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting.9”

• cites [18] Diamond, A. Activities and programs that improve children’s executive functions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21, 335–341 (2012). sourcePartly supported

  In “First, What Are EFs?” (page not provided), Diamond identifies three core executive functions: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. The passage supports the three-component list, with cognitive flexibility corresponding broadly to set shifting, but it does not describe the unity-and-diversity model or say the components are both interrelated and separable. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [21] Baddeley, A. Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 63, 1–29 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [22] Wiemers, E. A. & Redick, T. S. Working memory capacity and intra-individual variability of proactive control. Acta Psychol. 182, 21–31 (2018). sourceCould not verify

  The Abstract and Discussion describe working memory capacity and proactive cognitive control, not the unity and diversity model or its proposed three components. Searches for the model and for inhibition, shifting, and updating found no passage in our copy addressing that claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Assessment of executive function has a significant role in clinical practice, including early detection and intervention planning.

“assessment of executive function plays a significant role in clinical practice, including early detection and intervention planning.40”

• cites [40] Wiebe, S. A. et al. The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds. J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 108, 436–452 (2011). sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s introductory discussion (indexed under Abstract; page unavailable) links understanding executive function in preschoolers to clinical symptoms and says it is critical for designing preventive interventions for children with early difficulties. It does not establish that executive-function assessment plays a significant role in clinical practice or early detection. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A large ADHD literature proposes that executive function deficits are either causal mechanisms, non-causal factors that aid developmental recovery, or epiphenomenal.

“An expansive literature in ADHD spanning nearly three decades29,31–34 posits that executive function deficits are either causal mechanisms that give rise to ADHD behavioral symptoms; non-causal factors that nonetheless aid in developmental recovery from ADHD; or epiphenomenal”

• cites [29] Rapport, M. D., Chung, K.-M., Shore, G. & Isaacs, P. A conceptual model of child psychopathology: implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 30, 48–58 (2001). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [31] Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory deficits and social problems in children with ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 39, 805–817 (2011). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [32] Groves, N. B. et al. Executive functioning and emotion regulation in children with and without ADHD. Res. Child. Adolesc. Psychopathol. 50, 721–735 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (‘ADHD and Executive Functioning’; page unavailable) says many theories view ADHD as a disorder of executive dysfunction, and the Method (‘Data Analysis Plan’; page unavailable) says executive functions are often conceptualized as underlying causal factors. Our copy does not set out the other attributed possibilities: executive-function deficits as non-causal aids to developmental recovery or as epiphenomenal. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [33] Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E. & Raiker, J. S. ADHD and working memory: the impact of central executive deficits and exceeding storage/rehearsal capacity on observed inattentive behavior. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 38, 149–161 (2010). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [34] Hill, E. L. Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Dev. Rev. 24, 189–233 (2004). sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s 'Problems with the executive function account of autism' section (p. 18) says executive dysfunction occurs in ADHD and discusses studies comparing executive-function deficits across disorders. It does not describe the claimed three positions about whether those deficits cause ADHD symptoms, aid recovery, or are epiphenomenal; its discussion of a causal role concerns autism (p. 13). (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [38] Karr, J. E. et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions: a systematic review and re-analysis of latent variable studies. Psychol. Bull. 144, 1147–1185 (2018). sourceCould not verify

  The References list studies of executive-function deficits and ADHD, but those entries do not state the three proposed roles of the deficits. Searches for ADHD, developmental recovery, and epiphenomenal found no passage in our copy discussing those roles. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Co-diagnosis rates of ASD and ADHD can reach 70%.

“The rates of co-diagnosis of ASD and ADHD are as high as 70%6”

• cites [6] Federico, A. et al. Predictors of autism spectrum disorder and ADHD: results from the national survey of children’s health. Disabil. Health J. 17, 101512 (2023). sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Executive function deficits have been documented in both autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

“Executive function deficits have been reported in both autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).”

• cites [14] Demetriou, E. A., DeMayo, M. M. & Guastella, A. J. Executive function in autism spectrum disorder: history, theoretical models, empirical findings, and potential as an endophenotype. Front. Psychiat. 10, 753 (2019). sourcePartly supported

  The Executive Dysfunction Hypothesis section reports executive-function deficits in ASD. The Moderator Variables of EF section says co-morbid ADHD may influence executive-function performance in ASD, particularly inhibition, but does not establish deficits in people with ADHD generally. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [15] Kofler, M. J. et al. Reaction time variability in ADHD: a meta-analytic review of 319 studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33, 795–811 (2013). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [16] Nigg, J. T. Annual research review: on the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 58, 361–383 (2017). sourceCould not verify

  The section on executive functioning defines EF but does not report deficits in ASD or ADHD. The section on psychopathology and self-regulation reports steeper reward discounting and riskier gambling-task choices in children with ADHD, not executive-function deficits; the autism mention found is in a reference title. Searches for ASD, ADHD, executive-function deficits, and inhibition did not locate a passage establishing the claim for both conditions. (LLM, conf=0.73)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [17] Barrasso-Catanzaro, C. & Eslinger, P. J. Neurobiological bases of executive function and social-emotional development: typical and atypical brain changes. Fam. Relat. 65, 108–119 (2016). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Working memory impairments remain notable among youth with ADHD when ASD symptoms are controlled and among individuals without co-occurring ASD.

“these impairments remain notable among youth with ADHD when controlling for symptoms of ASD68 and among individuals without co-occurring ASD.69,70”

• cites [68] Neely, R. J., Green, J. L., Sciberras, E., Hazell, P. & Anderson, V. Relationship between executive functioning and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in 6–8 year old children. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 46, 3270–3280 (2016). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [69] Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H. & Lehmkuhl, G. Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Ment. Health 2, 1–4 (2008). sourcePartly supported

  The Spatial Working Memory Task results report poorer performance in the ADHD group than in typically developing controls, supporting the impairment claim. The Abstract and Methods say the study compared diagnostic groups and used age- and IQ-corrected scores; they do not report controlling statistically for ASD symptoms. The separate claim about individuals without co-occurring ASD is attached to citations 69 and 70, not this source. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [70] Benallie, K. J., McClain, M. B., Bakner, K. E., Roanhorse, T. & Ha, J. Executive functioning in children with ASD + ADHD and ASD + ID: a systematic review. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 86, 101807 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In ASD, working memory effect sizes are larger among school-aged children (d=0.62) than adolescents (d=0.20), although some meta-analyses report no age effects.

“effect sizes are larger among school-aged children (d=0.62) compared to adolescents (d=0.20),61 although some meta-analyses report no age effects.62,63”

• cites [61] Wang, Y. et al. A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychol. Rev. 27, 46–61 (2017). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [62] Edmunds, S. R., Colman, C., Vidal, P. & Faja, S. Brief report: examining the links between language processes and working memory impairments in toddlers and preschoolers with ASD. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 52, 1872–1880 (2022). sourceCould not verify

  The cited paper says school-aged children with ASD show working-memory deficits, but its Methods and Results concern 2- and 4-year-olds. Searches for the stated effect sizes and an adolescent comparison found neither in our copy. The separate claim about meta-analyses is attached to citations 62 and 63, not this source. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [63] Lai, C. L. E. et al. Meta-analysis of neuropsychological measures of executive functioning in children and adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res. 10, 911–939 (2017). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Working memory test deficits are consistently among the largest executive function deficits in youth with ADHD, with some meta-analytic estimates as high as d=0.69-0.74.

“Deficits on tests on tests intended to measure working memory are consistently among the largest deficits of any executive function component54 in studies of youth with ADHD, with some meta-analytic estimates as high as d=0.69–0.74.55”

• cites [54] Fosco, W. D., Kofler, M. J., Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. & Raiker, J. S. Which ‘working’components of working memory aren’t working in youth with ADHD? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 48, 647–660 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  The paper states that children with ADHD show large differences from typically developing peers on working-memory tasks (opening overview, page unavailable). It does not compare those deficits with other executive-function components to establish that they are consistently among the largest. The d=0.69–0.74 meta-analytic estimate has a separate citation in the citing sentence and is not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [55] Wager, T. D. & Smith, E. E. Neuroimaging studies of working memory. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 3, 255–274 (2003). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Inhibitory control findings are generally mixed, and meta-analytic effect sizes are null or small-to-medium when interference control tests are used.

“findings related to inhibitory control are generally mixed and meta-analytic effect sizes are null or small-to-medium when interference control tests are used (such as Stroop, flanker and Simon tasks).59,60,78,79”

• cites [59] Demetriou, E. A. et al. Autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of executive function. Mol. Psychiat. 23, 1198–1204 (2018). sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes findings on executive function in ASD as mixed, and the Results (EF domain-specific effects) report small-to-moderate effects across domains, including response inhibition. But the paper does not report null-to-small/medium effects specifically for interference-control tests such as Stroop, flanker, or Simon tasks; its domain-level result does not establish that task-specific claim. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [60] Habib, A., Harris, L., Pollick, F. & Melville, C. A meta-analysis of working memory in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. PLoS ONE 14, e0216198 (2019). sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction mentions inhibition as one executive function, but the Results and Discussion report effect sizes for working memory, not inhibitory control. Searches for interference control, Stroop, flanker, and Simon tasks found no passage assessing whether inhibitory-control findings are mixed or their meta-analytic effect sizes are null or small-to-medium (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [78] Geurts, H. M., van den Bergh, S. F. W. M. & Ruzzano, L. Prepotent response inhibition and interference control in autism spectrum disorders: two meta-analyses. Autism Res. 7, 407–420 (2014). sourceSupported
• cites [79] Tonizzi, I., Giofrè, D. & Usai, M. C. Inhibitory control in autism spectrum disorders: meta-analyses on indirect and direct measures. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 52, 4949–4965 (2022). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Stop-signal and go/no-go tasks show medium meta-analytic effect sizes in school-aged youth through adulthood (d=0.49-0.63) and medium effect sizes in preschoolers (d=0.37-0.87).

“Studies based on these tasks show medium meta-analytic effect sizes in school-aged youth through adulthood (d=0.49–0.63)75–77 and medium effect sizes in preschoolers (d=0.37–0.87).59”

• cites [75] Lipszyc, J. & Schachar, R. Inhibitory control and psychopathology: a meta-analysis of studies using the stop signal task. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 16, 1064–1076 (2010). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [76] Lansbergen, M. M., Kenemans, J. L. & van Engeland, H. Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 21, 251–262 (2007). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [77] Mullane, J. C., Corkum, P. V., Klein, R. M. & McLaughlin, E. Interference control in children with and without ADHD: a systematic review of Flanker and Simon task performance. Child. Neuropsychol. 15, 321–342 (2009). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [59] Demetriou, E. A. et al. Autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of executive function. Mol. Psychiat. 23, 1198–1204 (2018). sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Overall effect of EF; page unavailable) report a moderate effect of g=0.49 after excluding questionnaires, and the paper analyzes response inhibition by age. They do not establish d=0.49–0.63 specifically for stop-signal and go/no-go tasks in school-aged youth through adulthood. The preschool figures are attached to a different citation in the citing sentence, so they are not assessed against this source. (LLM, conf=0.79)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Co-occurring ADHD and ASD groups show impaired inhibitory control relative to neurotypical peers and to the ASD-only group.

“Co-occurring ADHD and ASD groups demonstrated impaired inhibitory control relative to neurotypically developing peers67,69–71 and the ASD-only group.67,69,71”

• cites [67] Craig, F. et al. A review of executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiat. Dis. Treat. 12, 1191–1202 (2016).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [69] Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H. & Lehmkuhl, G. Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Ment. Health 2, 1–4 (2008). sourceSupported
• cites [70] Benallie, K. J., McClain, M. B., Bakner, K. E., Roanhorse, T. & Ha, J. Executive functioning in children with ASD + ADHD and ASD + ID: a systematic review. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 86, 101807 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [71] Carroll, A. G. Comparing Executive Functioning Impairments Across Clinical Groups: Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Their Comorbid Occurrence in Children PhD thesis https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/comparing-executive-functioning-impairments/docview/2594697995/se-2?accountid=15728 (Indiana Univ. Pennsylvania, 2022).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Youth with ASD show worse set shifting than youth with ADHD and co-occurring ADHD and ASD, but some studies find no group differences and one study found better performance in ASD than in neurotypical and co-occurring peers.

“Youth with ASD also show worse set shifting compared to youth with ADHD69 and co-occurring ADHD and ASD;72 however, some studies show no group differences42 and one study observed better performance among youth with ASD compared to neurotypical and co-occurring ADHD and ASD peers.71”

• cites [69] Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H. & Lehmkuhl, G. Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Ment. Health 2, 1–4 (2008). sourceSupported
• cites [72] Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. ADHD and behavioral inhibition: a re-examination of the stop-signal task. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 989–998 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [42] Lerner, M. D. & Lonigan, C. J. Executive function among preschool children: unitary versus distinct abilities. J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 36, 626–639 (2014). sourceCould not verify

  Citation 42 is attached to the claim that some studies found no group differences in set shifting. The Current Study and Discussion > Limitations sections say this paper examined working memory and inhibitory control in preschool children and did not measure shifting. A search for ASD–ADHD set-shifting comparisons found no passage addressing the cited claim; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Youth with ADHD show inhibitory control test deficits with medium effect sizes (d=0.52) compared with neurotypical youth, and preschoolers with elevated ADHD symptoms show small-to-medium deficits (d=0.49).

“Youth with ADHD show deficits on tests intended to measure inhibitory control, with medium effect sizes (d=0.52)54 compared to neurotypical youth, and preschoolers with elevated ADHD symptoms show small-to-medium deficits overall (d=0.49).60”

• cites [54] Fosco, W. D., Kofler, M. J., Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. & Raiker, J. S. Which ‘working’components of working memory aren’t working in youth with ADHD? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 48, 647–660 (2020). sourceCould not verify

  Citation 54 is attached to the inhibitory-control claim, not the separate preschooler claim cited to 60. The Discussion > Limitations passage mentions inhibitory control only as a topic for future work; the paper’s reported effect sizes concern working-memory components. Searches for inhibitory-control deficits and d=0.52 found no passage supporting the attributed result. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [60] Habib, A., Harris, L., Pollick, F. & Melville, C. A meta-analysis of working memory in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. PLoS ONE 14, e0216198 (2019). sourceCould not verify

  The Discussion reports working-memory deficits in individuals with autism spectrum disorder, not inhibitory-control deficits in youth with ADHD. Searches for the ADHD inhibitory-control finding and the preschool effect size found no passage reporting either d=0.52 or d=0.49; the ADHD-related entries in References do not establish those findings. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

A meta-analysis found a small-to-medium inhibitory control effect in ASD (d=0.48), with younger children showing more pronounced deficits than adolescents (preschool d=0.72; school-aged d=0.56; adolescence d=0.42).

“A meta-analysis identified a small-to-medium effect (d=0.48), with younger children showing more pronounced deficits than adolescents (preschool d=0.72; vs. school-aged d=0.56; vs. adolescence d=0.42).81”

• cites [81] Irwin, L. N., Groves, N. B., Soto, E. F. & Kofler, M. J. Is there a functional relation between set shifting and hyperactivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 26, 1019–1027 (2020). sourceCould not verify

  The Method > Participants passage describes an ADHD study that excluded children with autism spectrum disorder. The Discussion addresses inhibitory-control demands and hyperactivity, but neither it nor the passages found by searching the reported effect sizes and ASD age groups reports an ASD meta-analysis or the claimed estimates. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

According to a review of 34 meta-analyses, youth with ADHD show medium-magnitude non-specific executive functioning deficits compared with neurotypical youth (d=0.45), with larger deficits in children (d≈0.50) than adolescents (d≤0.30).

“According to a review of 34 meta-analyses, youth with ADHD exhibit medium-magnitude deficits compared to neurotypical youth on non-specific executive functioning (d=0.45), with larger deficits among children (d≈0.50) than adolescents (d≤0.30).”

• cites [42] Lerner, M. D. & Lonigan, C. J. Executive function among preschool children: unitary versus distinct abilities. J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 36, 626–639 (2014). sourceCould not verify

  The Academic and Behavioral Correlates of EFs section discusses executive functions in preschool children, and the References list includes a study of preschool children with ADHD. Neither those passages nor searches for the 34 meta-analyses and the stated effect sizes yielded a passage reporting the claimed review, d=0.45, or the child–adolescent comparison. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.77)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Set shifting has been understudied compared with working memory and inhibitory control in youth with ADHD and is associated with relatively smaller effect sizes (youth d=0.35, preschool d=0.26).

“Set shifting has been understudied compared to working memory and inhibitory control among youth with ADHD, and has been associated with relatively smaller effect sizes (youth d=0.35, preschool d=0.26)54,60.”

• cites [54] Fosco, W. D., Kofler, M. J., Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. & Raiker, J. S. Which ‘working’components of working memory aren’t working in youth with ADHD? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 48, 647–660 (2020). sourceCould not verify

  The Abstract reports effect sizes for working-memory reordering, updating, and dual-processing, not set shifting. Searches for set shifting, its comparison with working memory and inhibitory control, and the stated youth and preschool effect sizes found no passage addressing the claim. Page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [60] Habib, A., Harris, L., Pollick, F. & Melville, C. A meta-analysis of working memory in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. PLoS ONE 14, e0216198 (2019). sourceCould not verify

  The Results and Discussion address working-memory performance in people with autism spectrum disorders, not set shifting in youth with ADHD. Searches for set shifting, preschool ADHD, and the claimed effect sizes (d=0.35 and d=0.26) found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Co-occurring ADHD and ASD groups show greater working memory impairment than neurotypical peers (d=0.65) but similar working memory performance to ASD-only groups.

“Studies also demonstrate greater impairment in ADHD and ASD co-occurring groups relative to neurotypical peers (d=0.65),67,69,70 but similar working memory performance relative to ASD-only groups.69,70,72,73”

• cites [67] Craig, F. et al. A review of executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiat. Dis. Treat. 12, 1191–1202 (2016).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [69] Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H. & Lehmkuhl, G. Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Ment. Health 2, 1–4 (2008). sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract reports that the ASD+ group did not have more working-memory problems than the ASD-only group, supporting the similar-performance comparison. The Spatial Working Memory Task section reports longer task duration for ASD+ than for both ASD-only and typically developing children (d=0.4), but no significant group differences in the MANOVA. It does not report the claimed d=0.65 impairment relative to typically developing peers. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [70] Benallie, K. J., McClain, M. B., Bakner, K. E., Roanhorse, T. & Ha, J. Executive functioning in children with ASD + ADHD and ASD + ID: a systematic review. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 86, 101807 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [72] Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. ADHD and behavioral inhibition: a re-examination of the stop-signal task. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 989–998 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [73] Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D. & Kofler, M. J. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and behavioral inhibition: a meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 35, 745–758 (2007). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Differential diagnosis problems can reduce the validity of the research base and harm children and families through inaccurate diagnoses and delayed appropriate treatment.

“Such problems with differential diagnoses can reduce the validity of the research base and negatively impact children and their families due to inaccurate diagnoses and delays in implementing appropriate treatments.97”

• cites [97] Mazefsky, C. A. et al. ASD, a psychiatric disorder, or both? Psychiatric diagnoses in adolescents with high-functioning ASD. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 41, 516–523 (2012). sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The categorical approach often fails to capture clinically relevant symptoms outside diagnostic criteria in complex, heterogeneous, and highly co-occurring diagnoses, and thus likely conflates ADHD and ASD between-group differences.

“This categorical approach often fails to adequately capture clinically relevant symptoms that fall outside the diagnostic criteria in complex, heterogeneous, and highly co-occurring diagnoses and thus likely conflates ADHD and ASD between-group differences104,105.”

• cites [104] Giofrè, D., Mammarella, I. C. & Cornoldi, C. The structure of working memory and how it relates to intelligence in children. Intelligence 41, 396–406 (2013). sourceCould not verify

  The Participants section (p. 8) describes typically developing children, and the WM Models section (p. 12) compares models of working memory rather than diagnostic categories. Searches for ADHD, ASD, diagnostic criteria, and co-occurring diagnoses found no passage addressing whether categorical diagnosis conflates between-group differences. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [105] Tourva, A., Spanoudis, G. & Demetriou, A. Cognitive correlates of developing intelligence: the contribution of working memory, processing speed and attention. Intelligence 54, 136–146 (2016). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This interest likely resulted from theory, research, and empirical evidence linking executive function deficits to various psychopathologies and to adverse functional outcomes in clinical and non-clinical pediatric populations.

“This piqued interest likely resulted from theory, research and empirical evidence linking executive function deficits to various psychopathologies (including neurodevelopmental disorders) and to adverse functional outcomes in clinical and non-clinical pediatric populations.19,69,109”

• cites [19] Miyake, A. et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 41, 49–100 (2000). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [69] Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H. & Lehmkuhl, G. Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Ment. Health 2, 1–4 (2008). sourcePartly supported

  The Background and Executive function tests sections link executive-function deficits with two pediatric neurodevelopmental disorders, ADHD and autism spectrum disorder, using clinical groups and typically developing controls. The paper does not establish a link to adverse functional outcomes in either clinical or non-clinical children; it measures performance on executive-function tasks rather than those outcomes. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [109] Sokolova, E. et al. A causal and mediation analysis of the comorbidity between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47, 1595–1604 (2017). sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page not provided) links executive-function deficits to ADHD and ASD, and the Discussion connects impulsivity with social difficulties in children. The paper does not establish the broader claim about various psychopathologies and adverse functional outcomes across clinical and non-clinical pediatric populations. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

ASD symptoms might be misattributed as ADHD symptoms in a child diagnosed with ADHD, and vice versa.

“symptoms of ASD might be misattributed as ADHD symptoms in a child diagnosed with ADHD and vice versa.96,97”

• cites [96] Rosen, T. E., Mazefsky, C. A., Vasa, R. A. & Lerner, M. D. Co-occurring psychiatric conditions in autism spectrum disorder. Int. Rev. Psychiat. 30, 40–61 (2018). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [97] Mazefsky, C. A. et al. ASD, a psychiatric disorder, or both? Psychiatric diagnoses in adolescents with high-functioning ASD. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 41, 516–523 (2012). sourcePartly supported

  The Results (page unavailable) report that nearly one third of the adolescents with ASD had prior ADHD diagnoses that the autism-specific interview did not support. The Discussion says ASD-related symptoms may be attributed to another disorder and also describes the general possibility of comorbid symptoms being mistaken for ASD. It does not specifically establish the reverse ADHD-to-ASD misattribution in a child diagnosed with ADHD. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Working memory is a likely causal predictor of global IQ, and age-related improvements in working memory lead directly to improvements in IQ.

“working memory is a (likely causal) predictor of global IQ101–103 and age-related improvements in working memory lead directly to improvements in IQ.103”

• cites [101] Musser, E. D. et al. Shared familial transmission of autism spectrum and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 55, 819–827 (2014). sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction discusses shared genetic and cognitive correlates of ADHD and autism, while the Results examine associations between maternal and child diagnoses (page numbers not provided). Searches for working memory as a predictor of IQ and for age-related working-memory improvements found no passage addressing either claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [102] Lerner, M. D. et al. Verbal ability and psychiatric symptoms in clinically referred inpatient and outpatient youth with ASD. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 48, 3689–3701 (2018). sourceCould not verify

  The study objective described in the Abstract is the association between verbal ability and psychiatric symptoms in youth with ASD, adjusting for nonverbal IQ and age. Searches for working memory, IQ development, and age-related change found no passage addressing whether working memory predicts IQ or whether improvements in working memory cause improvements in IQ. The Discussion’s caution about causality concerns verbal ability and psychiatric symptoms, not this claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [103] Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E. & Conway, A. R. Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 128, 309–331 (1999). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Select items from the BASC-3 and ADOS-2 might accurately differentiate ASD from ADHD, but both measures fail to adequately differentiate ADHD from ASD.

“select items from the Behavior Assessment System for Children-3 (BASC-3) and the Autism Diagnostic Observation System (ADOS-2) might accurately differentiate ASD from ADHD, although both measures fail to adequately differentiate ADHD from ASD.11,95”

• cites [11] Grzadzinski, R., Dick, C., Lord, C. & Bishop, S. Parent-reported and clinician-observed autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): implications for practice under DSM-5. Molec. Autism 7, 7 (2016). sourcePartly supported

  The Results and Discussion report that four ADOS social-communication items adequately distinguished the ASD and ADHD groups. But the paper studied the ADOS and ADI-R, not the BASC-3, and it says ADI-R items—not both measures—failed its criterion for adequate discrimination. The claim also does not reflect that ADOS items discriminated between the groups in this sample. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [95] Zhou, X., Reynolds, C., Zhu, J. & Kamphaus, R. W. Differentiating autism from ADHD in children and adolescents using BASC-3. J. Pediatr. Neuropsychol. 6, 61–65 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Modern performance-based executive function tests are based on cognitive models of executive function and are termed 'cognitively-informed'.

“Cognitive and clinical scientists have developed modern performance tests of executive function that are based on models of executive function from the cognitive literature (‘cognitively-informed’).22,143”

• cites [22] Wiemers, E. A. & Redick, T. S. Working memory capacity and intra-individual variability of proactive control. Acta Psychol. 182, 21–31 (2018). sourcePartly supported

  The Proactive and Reactive Control and AX-CPT: Previous Research sections (pages unavailable) describe a performance task used to assess control mechanisms defined by a cognitive theory. The paper thus provides an example of a theory-guided test, but it does not make the broader claim that modern executive-function tests as a class were developed this way or call them “cognitively-informed.” (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [143] Nigg, J. T., Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E. & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biol. Psychiat. 57, 1224–1230 (2005). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Construct-valid measurement of working memory specifically, and executive functioning more broadly, is currently significantly limited in clinical practice.

“In either case, the construct valid measurement of working memory specifically, and executive functioning more broadly, is currently significantly limited in clinical practice”

• cites [109] Sokolova, E. et al. A causal and mediation analysis of the comorbidity between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47, 1595–1604 (2017). sourceCould not verify

  The Measures section describes ADHD and ASD symptom scales and their psychometric properties; the Discussion mentions executive-function deficits in children with ADHD and/or ASD. Neither addresses whether construct-valid measurement of working memory or executive functioning is significantly limited in clinical practice. Searches for working-memory construct validity and clinical assessment found no passage making that point. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

New tests and measures were developed psychometrically but often had smaller normative samples and were mostly not adopted in widespread clinical or clinical-research practice.

“new tests and measures were developed psychometrically, but frequently had smaller normative samples and were in most cases not adopted in widespread clinical and clinical-research practice.112”

• cites [112] Snyder, H. R., Miyake, A. & Hankin, B. L. Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches. Front. Psychol. 6, 328 (2015). sourcePartly supported

  The Methodological Issues section says that more specific EF tasks have been developed, while traditional neuropsychological measures remain frequently used in clinical studies. It does not establish that the newer tests were developed psychometrically, had smaller normative samples, or were mostly not adopted in clinical practice. It says instead that established test batteries often have extensive psychometric evaluations and norms and have been heavily used in clinical populations; no page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

In children with ADHD, traditional scoring of the WISC-IV digit span backward subtest failed to predict working memory or achievement and showed moderate correspondence with fluid reasoning (general factor g).

“the results revealed that traditional scoring of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV digit span backward subtest (a commonly used task assumed to test working memory) failed to predict working memory or achievement and instead showed moderate correspondence with fluid reasoning (general factor g)131.”

• cites [129] Watkins, M. W. et al. Long-term stability of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — 5th edition scores in a clinical sample. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child. 11, 422–428 (2022). sourceCould not verify

  The Method (Instrument; Participants & procedure, pages unavailable) describes repeat testing with the WISC-V, including children with ADHD. The Summary & conclusions reports test–retest stability comparisons, not whether traditionally scored WISC-IV Digit Span Backward predicts working memory or achievement or corresponds with fluid reasoning. Searches for those specific terms found no passage addressing the claimed result. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [131] Conway, A. R. et al. Working memory span tasks: a methodological review and user’s guide. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 12, 769–786 (2005). sourceCould not verify

  The Scoring section (page unavailable) discusses traditional scoring of working-memory span tasks, and the WM Span Tasks Versus Other WM Tasks section discusses backward digit span. Neither reports WISC-IV digit span backward results in children with ADHD or the claimed relationships with working memory, achievement, and fluid reasoning. Searches for ADHD, WISC-IV, and those outcomes found no matching result in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Working memory tests commonly used in clinical practice place relatively minimal demands on the executive components of working memory and may be better conceptualized as measures of short-term memory.

“We and others have also argued that the working memory tests commonly used in clinical practice place relatively minimal demands on the executive components of working memory and thus might be better conceptualized as measures of short term memory .53,101,130,132,133”

• cites [53] Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32, 605–617 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [101] Musser, E. D. et al. Shared familial transmission of autism spectrum and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 55, 819–827 (2014). sourceCould not verify

  The Methods describe diagnoses drawn from clinical records, and the Results examine familial transmission of ASD and ADHD. Neither those passages nor searches for working-memory tests, executive components, and short-term memory found a passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [130] Wells, E. L., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., Schaefer, H. S. & Sarver, D. E. Assessing working memory in children with ADHD: minor administration and scoring changes may improve digit span backward’s construct validity. Res. Dev. Disabil. 72, 166–178 (2018). sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The trail making test was repurposed from a test of brain injury or gross neuropsychological functioning to a specific test of set shifting.

“the trail making test was repurposed from a test of brain injury or gross neuropsychological functioning to a specific test of set shifting.111”

• cites [111] Anning, K. L., Langley, K., Hobson, C. & Van Goozen, S. H. M. Dimensional associations between executive function processes and symptoms of ADHD, ASD, oppositional defiance and anxiety in young school-referred children. Cortex 167, 132–147 (2023). sourceCould not verify

  Section 2.7.1 identifies the Dimensional Change Card Sort, not the Trail Making Test, as this study’s measure of cognitive flexibility. Searches for “trail making” and for the claimed shift from brain-injury assessment to set-shifting assessment found no passage addressing that history. Page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The combination of informant-rated executive function scales and performance-based tests has often been considered the gold standard for clinical and neuropsychological assessment of executive function in children and adolescents.

“The combination of informant-rated executive function scales and performance-based tests has often been considered the gold standard for clinical and neuropsychological assessment of executive function in children and adolescents.134,135”

• cites [134] Redick, T. S. & Lindsey, D. R. Complex span and n-back measures of working memory: a meta-analysis. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 20, 1102–1113 (2013). sourceCould not verify

  The Design and analyses and Results and discussion passages (pages not provided) concern performance-based working-memory tasks, chiefly complex span and n-back. Searches for informant ratings and a clinical assessment ‘gold standard’ found no passage addressing their combined use to assess executive function in children or adolescents. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [135] Isquith, P. K., Roth, R. M. & Gioia, G. Contribution of rating scales to the assessment of executive functions. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child. 2, 125–132 (2013). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Modifying the administration and scoring of the WISC-IV digit span backward subtest reduced its association with fluid reasoning from a significant r=.49 to a non-significant r=.15 and increased its associations with latent working memory (reordering and dual-processing, r=.53-.58) and academic achievement (r=.49).

“modifications to the subtest administration and scoring decreased its association with fluid reasoning (from a statistically significant r=.49 to a non-significant r=.15) and substantially increased the magnitude of its associations with latent estimates of working memory, specifically reordering and dual-processing (r=.53-.58) and academic achievement (r=.49).129”

• cites [129] Watkins, M. W. et al. Long-term stability of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — 5th edition scores in a clinical sample. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child. 11, 422–428 (2022). sourceCould not verify

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Compared to children without ADHD, children with ADHD exhibited large impairments in serial/temporal reordering (d=1.34) and medium-sized impairments in continuous updating (d=0.64), but generally intact dual-processing working memory.

“Compared to children without ADHD, children with ADHD exhibited large impairments in serial/temporal reordering (d=1.34) and medium-sized impairments in continuous updating (d=0.64), but generally intact dual-processing working memory.”

• cites [56] Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: a bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology 34, 686–698 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  The Results and Discussion report large working-memory impairments in children with ADHD, measured using tasks with serial-reordering demands. They report d=1.63 and a range of d=1.62–2.03, not d=1.34. The paper does not report the claimed d=0.64 for continuous updating or establish that dual-processing working memory is generally intact. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Studies using cognitively-informed measures report that 89% of ADHD cases exhibited impairment in at least one executive function, including 75-85% with impaired working memory, 21-46% with impaired inhibitory control, and 10-38% with impaired set shifting.

“studies using cognitively-informed measures report that 89% of ADHD cases exhibited impairments in at least one executive function (75–85% impaired working memory, 21–46% impaired inhibitory control, 10–38% impaired set shifting).53,56”

• cites [53] Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32, 605–617 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [56] Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: a bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology 34, 686–698 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports working-memory impairment in approximately 75%–81% of children with ADHD and cites estimates reaching 85%, supporting that portion of the sentence. The paper does not report 89% impaired in at least one executive function or the stated inhibitory-control percentages. Its Discussion instead says ADHD is likely not associated with set-shifting impairment, so it does not support the stated set-shifting range. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Across meta-analyses using traditional neuropsychological executive function tests for children with ADHD, 33%-50% of cases exhibited executive function deficits, including 30%-37% with impaired working memory and 21%-46% with impaired inhibitory control.

“across meta-analyses using traditional neuropsychological executive function tests for children with ADHD, 33%-50% of cases exhibited executive function deficits (30%-37% impaired working memory, 21%-46% impaired inhibitory control).90,144–149”

• cites [90] Irwin, L. N. et al. Activities of daily living and working memory in pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child. Neuropsychol. 27, 468–490 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The ‘Working Memory Impairments in ADHD’ section reports executive-function and working-memory deficits in children with ADHD and cites meta-analytic evidence. It does not give the claimed 33%–50%, 30%–37%, or 21%–46% ranges, or an inhibitory-control estimate; instead, it says a majority have at least one executive-function impairment and gives a 62%–85% working-memory prevalence. The copy does not establish whether its estimates used the traditional tests specified in the claim. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [144] Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V. & Pennington, B. F. Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol. Psychiat. 57, 1336–1346 (2005). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [145] Solanto, M. V. et al. The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: a supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 29, 215–228 (2001). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [146] Sonuga-Barke, E., Bitsakou, P. & Thompson, M. Beyond the dual pathway model: evidence for the dissociation of timing, inhibitory, and delay-related impairments in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 49, 345–355 (2010). sourcePartly supported

  The Neuropsychological studies section reports executive-function deficits in ADHD and cites a study finding that 30% of patients had deficits on at least three tasks in a large executive-function battery. It does not report the claimed meta-analytic ranges of 33%–50% overall, 30%–37% for working memory, or 21%–46% for inhibitory control. The paper’s own Results concern inhibition, timing, and delay-related deficits, not those ranges (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [147] Willoughby, M. T. & Blair, C. B. Measuring executive function in early childhood: a case for formative measurement. Psychol. Assess. 28, 319 (2016). sourceCould not verify

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [148] Redick, T. S. et al. Measuring working memory capacity with automated complex span tasks. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 28, 164–171 (2012). sourceCould not verify

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [149] Nee, D. E. et al. A meta-analysis of executive components of working memory. Cereb. Cortex 23, 264–282 (2013). sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Working memory can be divided into a 'working' component (mental processes operating on held information) and a 'memory' component (short-term memory, passive storage and rehearsal).

“working memory can be divided into its ‘working’ component (the mental processes that operate on mentally held information) and ‘memory’ component (short-term memory, the passive storage and rehearsal mechanisms that temporarily hold information in mind).”

• cites [20] Diamond, A. Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64, 135–168 (2013). sourcePartly supported

  In “Working Memory,” Diamond describes holding information in mind and mentally working with it. In “Working Memory Versus Short-Term Memory,” she distinguishes that from merely holding information in mind. The copy does not divide working memory into the two named components or describe rehearsal as part of a memory component; page numbers were not provided. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [56] Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: a bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology 34, 686–698 (2020). sourceSupported
• cites [152] Fosco, W. D. et al. Inhibitory control and information processing in ADHD: comparing the dual task and performance adjustment hypotheses. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47, 961–974 (2019). sourceCould not verify

  The “Reaction Time Slowing: Dual-task Requirement Hypothesis” section discusses maintaining task goals in working memory, but does not divide working memory into ‘working’ and ‘memory’ components. Searches for passive storage, rehearsal, and short-term memory found no passage in our copy that addresses the claimed distinction; page numbers were not available. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

These studies showed that working memory but not inhibition deficits predict ADHD-related difficulties with emotion regulation, academic achievement and productivity, organizational skills, activities of daily living, inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptom severity, information processing speed, and peer relationships.

“These studies also showed that working memory but not inhibition deficits predict ADHD-related difficulties with emotion regulation, academic achievement and productivity, organizational skills, activities of daily living, inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptom severity, information processing speed, and peer relationships.8,27,31,36,37,58,156,158–161”

• cites [8] Kofler, M. J. et al. Neurocognitive and behavioral predictors of social problems in ADHD: a Bayesian framework. Neuropsychology 32, 344–355 (2018). sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion and Abstract Results report that working memory predicted social problems in children with ADHD, while inhibitory control generally did not. This supports the peer-relationships portion, but the paper does not establish the listed effects on emotion regulation, academic and organizational functioning, daily living, symptom severity, or processing speed. It treats ADHD symptoms and processing speed as potential predictors of social problems, not as outcomes predicted by working-memory deficits. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [27] Barkley, R. A. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol. Bull. 121, 65–94 (1997). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [31] Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory deficits and social problems in children with ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 39, 805–817 (2011). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A series of studies by some of the authors included children with ADHD and ASD, controlled for ASD when evaluating executive functions in ADHD, and used a battery of construct-valid working memory tests.

“a series of studies by some of the authors of the current Review included children with ADHD and ASD, controlled for ASD when evaluating executive functions in ADHD, and used a battery of construct-valid working memory tests.”

• cites [51] Kofler, M. J. et al. Executive functioning heterogeneity in pediatric ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47, 273–286 (2019). sourcePartly supported

  The Method (Group Assignment; page unavailable) includes children with ASD in both the ADHD and non-ADHD groups and reports the same ASD rate (5%) in each. The Current Study and Method (Measures; pages unavailable) describe a battery with multiple criterion tests, including validated working-memory tasks. This paper describes one study, not a series, and its ASD control was through group composition rather than a reported ASD-specific statistical adjustment. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [53] Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32, 605–617 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [56] Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: a bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology 34, 686–698 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  Method > Group Assignment reports that the ADHD and non-ADHD groups both included children with autism spectrum disorder; the non-ADHD clinical cases were included to control for comorbidities. Method > Working Memory Tasks describes phonological and visuospatial tests with reliability and validity evidence. This paper supports those features of its own study, but does not establish that a series of studies controlled for ASD; its listed analysis covariates are age, gender, and socioeconomic status, not ASD. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The 'working' component of working memory can be fractionated into continuous updating, dual-processing, and serial-temporal reordering; the 'memory' component can be fractionated into verbal, visual, and spatial short-term storage systems.

“the ‘working’ component can be fractionated into interrelated but distinguishable subprocesses involving continuous updating, dual-processing and serial-temporal reordering, and the ‘memory’ component can be fractionated into distinct verbal, visual and spatial short-term storage systems (Figure 1).20,56,152”

• cites [20] Diamond, A. Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64, 135–168 (2013). sourcePartly supported

  The Working Memory section describes updating and mentally reordering information, and Working Memory Versus Short-Term Memory distinguishes manipulation from simple storage (page not available in our copy). It does not present dual-processing as a distinct subprocess or divide short-term storage into separate verbal, visual, and spatial systems. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [56] Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: a bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology 34, 686–698 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  The “Working Memory Deficits in ADHD” section describes updating, dual-processing, and temporal/sequential manipulation as interconnected working-memory functions. It distinguishes phonological from visuospatial short-term memory, but treats visual and spatial storage together rather than as two distinct systems; the Method’s “Bifactor-(s-1) Models” section likewise specifies two storage systems, not three. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [152] Fosco, W. D. et al. Inhibitory control and information processing in ADHD: comparing the dual task and performance adjustment hypotheses. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47, 961–974 (2019). sourceCould not verify

  The Reaction Time Slowing: Dual-task Requirement Hypothesis section discusses working-memory demands from maintaining two task goals, but does not describe dual-processing as a distinct working-memory subprocess. The Discussion’s theoretical implications likewise do not address continuous updating, serial-temporal reordering, or separate verbal, visual, and spatial storage systems. Searches for those terms found no passage supporting the proposed fractionation; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Results indicated that children with ADHD have large working memory deficits and medium-to-null inhibitory control and set shifting deficits relative to children without ADHD.

“Results indicated that children with ADHD have large working memory deficits and medium-to-null inhibitory control and set shifting deficits relative to children without ADHD.51,53,56,58,75”

• cites [51] Kofler, M. J. et al. Executive functioning heterogeneity in pediatric ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47, 273–286 (2019). sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Tier 1: Executive Functioning Impairments in ADHD; page unavailable) report more frequent working-memory impairment (62%) than inhibitory-control (27%) or set-shifting impairment (38%) among children with ADHD, using the non-ADHD group as the reference. This supports the relative pattern, but those percentages do not establish the claimed large versus medium-to-null magnitudes of the group differences. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [53] Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32, 605–617 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [56] Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: a bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology 34, 686–698 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Tier 1: Working Memory Deficits in ADHD; page unavailable) report very large working-memory impairments in children with ADHD relative to children without ADHD (d=2.03). The Discussion (page unavailable) says ADHD is likely not associated with set-shifting impairments, citing earlier work, but this study does not report an inhibitory-control comparison. Thus the full medium-to-null claim about both inhibitory control and set shifting is not supported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The current literature indicates a substantial problem with task impurity and emphasizes the need for viable solutions.

“The current literature indicates a substantial problem with task impurity and emphasizes the need for viable solutions.109,165”

• cites [109] Sokolova, E. et al. A causal and mediation analysis of the comorbidity between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47, 1595–1604 (2017). sourceCould not verify

  The Discussion discusses overlapping ADHD and ASD symptoms and the need for further research on their links, but does not identify task impurity as a problem or call for solutions to it. Searches for “task impurity” and for tasks measuring multiple cognitive processes found no passage addressing that claim. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [165] Lara, T., Madrid, J. A. & Correa, Á. The vigilance decrement in executive function is attenuated when individual chronotypes perform at their optimal time of day. PLoS ONE 9, e88820 (2014). sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction and General Discussion discuss vigilance, executive control, and limitations of the study, but do not identify task impurity as a substantial problem or call for solutions to it. Searches for “task impurity” and related measurement-confound terms found no passage addressing that claim. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The three executive function components are moderately interrelated, and experimental evidence demonstrates that working memory impacts performance on inhibitory control tests but not vice versa, which could potentially explain why children with ADHD show deficits on inhibition tests.

“the three executive function components are moderately interrelated, and there is experimental evidence demonstrating that working memory impacts performance on inhibitory control tests (but not vice versa), which could potentially explain why children with ADHD show deficits on inhibition tests.152,157–159”

• cites [152] Fosco, W. D. et al. Inhibitory control and information processing in ADHD: comparing the dual task and performance adjustment hypotheses. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47, 961–974 (2019). sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [157] Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E. & Wells, E. L. Working memory and increased activity level (hyperactivity) in ADHD: experimental evidence for a functional relation. J. Atten. Disord. 24, 1330–1344 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [158] Rapport, M. D. et al. Hyperactivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a ubiquitous core symptom or manifestation of working memory deficits? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 37, 521–534 (2009). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [159] Schachar, R. J. et al. Autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: shared or unique neurocognitive profiles? Res. Child. Adolesc. Psychopathol. 51, 17–31 (2023). sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The nature and structure of executive function remains actively debated in the cognitive literature.

“At the same time, the nature and structure of executive function remains actively debated in the cognitive literature.184”

• cites [184] Howlett, C. A., Miles, S., Berryman, C., Phillipou, A. & Moseley, G. L. Conflation between self-report and neurocognitive assessments of cognitive flexibility: a critical review of the Jingle Fallacy. Aust. J. Psychol. 75, 2174684 (2023). sourcePartly supported

  The paper says it remains unresolved whether cognitive flexibility is a separable component of executive function or emerges from other cognitive processes (Abstract; no page given). The Limitations section also describes difficulty isolating cognitive flexibility from other executive processes. These passages support an ongoing debate about one aspect of executive function, but not the broader claim that the nature and structure of executive function as a whole remain debated. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is tenuous-if not scientifically indefensible-to reify any single test as measuring any single executive function.

“Stated bluntly, it is tenuous — if not scientifically indefensible — to reify any single test as measuring any single executive function.53,150”

• cites [53] Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32, 605–617 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [150] Kofler, M. J. et al. Rethinking hyperactivity in pediatric ADHD: preliminary evidence for a reconceptualization of hyperactivity/impulsivity from the perspective of informant perceptual processes. Psychol. Assess. 32, 752–767 (2020). sourceCould not verify

  The Method (Objectively-measured Hyperactivity; page unavailable) mentions working-memory tasks and executive processes, while the Method (Data Analysis Overview; page unavailable) concerns the validity of ADHD symptom-rating factors. Neither addresses whether a single test can measure a single executive function. Searches for single-test measurement, executive functions, and task impurity found no passage making the attributed point. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The authors located several executive function studies that included both ADHD and ASD samples and provided sufficient diagnostic details to suggest reasonable certainty regarding clinical groups.

“We were able to locate several executive function studies that included both ADHD and ASD samples and provided sufficient diagnostic details to suggest reasonable certainty regarding their clinical groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Research investigating executive function subcomponents in ADHD and/or ASD has been scarce to date.

“To date, research investigating executive function subcomponents in ADHD and/or ASD has been scarce.”

May combine two claims.

Most ADHD and ASD studies examined executive functioning in one disorder without consideration of the other, and even fewer included a co-occurring ADHD and ASD group.

“Most ADHD and ASD studies examined executive functioning in one disorder without consideration of the other, and even fewer studies included a co-occurring ADHD and ASD group.”

May combine two claims.

Most existing research has studied children, specifically boys.

“most existing research has studied children, specifically boys.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Most studies to date have recruited only relatively high functioning children with ASD.

“most studies to date have recruited only relatively high functioning children with ASD.”

May combine two claims.

The majority of existing studies rely on diagnostic status to define and compare ADHD and ASD groups, which limits understanding of symptom overlap and heterogeneity within and across these conditions.

“the majority of existing studies rely on diagnostic status to define and compare ADHD and ASD groups, which limits understanding of symptom overlap and heterogeneity within and across these conditions.”

May combine two claims.

ADHD and ASD share clinical features such as childhood onset, developmental brain deficits or delays, and behavioral difficulties across social and academic domains.

“both diagnoses share common clinical characteristics such as onset during childhood, developmental deficits or delays in brain development, and behavioral difficulties and impairments across social and academic domains1”

• cites [1] American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edn (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Developmental studies indicate that executive function abilities exist before age three, but specific executive function components are not yet distinguishable at that age.

“Developmental studies suggest that executive function abilities are present before three years of age, but specific executive function components are not yet discernible at this age.23”

• cites [23] Raiker, J. S., Rapport, M. D., Kofler, M. J. & Sarver, D. E. Objectively-measured impulsivity and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): testing competing predictions from the working memory and behavioral inhibition models of ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 40, 699–713 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The overlap in deficit profiles between ADHD and ASD might arise from deficits in different subcomponents that produce similar executive function test performances for different reasons.

“the overlap in deficit profiles between ADHD and ASD might be due to deficits in different subcomponents that produce similar performances on executive function tests but for different reasons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Accurate assessment of executive function components in children remains challenging despite methodological advances.

“Despite advancements in the methods and techniques to measure executive function in children, accurate assessment of executive function components remains challenging.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The smaller preschool effect might be due to substantial differences in the tasks administered to preschool-aged youth.

“This result might be due to substantial differences in the tasks administered to preschool-aged youth”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All three executive function components continue to develop and peak in young adulthood, around age 25, before plateauing and/or naturally diminishing with age.

“All three executive function components continue to develop and peak in young adulthood (approximately age 25) before plateauing and/or naturally diminishing with age.24”

• cites [24] Patros, C. H. et al. Visuospatial working memory underlies choice-impulsivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Res. Dev. Disabil. 38, 134–144 (2015). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Although 89% of youth with ADHD have a deficit in one or more executive function components, individuals differ in which component is impaired (approximately 75-85% working memory, 21-46% inhibitory control, and 10-38% set shifting).

“although a majority of youth with ADHD (89%) have a deficit in one or more executive function components, individuals differ in which component is impaired (approximately 75–85% of youth with ADHD have impairments in working memory, 21–46% in inhibitory control, and 10–38% in set shifting).53”

• cites [53] Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32, 605–617 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

When ADHD and ASD groups are compared, some evidence suggests greater inhibitory control impairment in ADHD, while other findings indicate equal impairment.

“When comparing ADHD to ASD groups, some evidence suggested greater inhibitory control impairment among individuals with ADHD compared to ASD,67,71 but other findings indicated the two groups exhibit equal levels of impairment.72”

• cites [67] Craig, F. et al. A review of executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiat. Dis. Treat. 12, 1191–1202 (2016).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [71] Carroll, A. G. Comparing Executive Functioning Impairments Across Clinical Groups: Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Their Comorbid Occurrence in Children PhD thesis https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/comparing-executive-functioning-impairments/docview/2594697995/se-2?accountid=15728 (Indiana Univ. Pennsylvania, 2022).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [72] Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. ADHD and behavioral inhibition: a re-examination of the stop-signal task. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 989–998 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Set shifting has been studied less than the other executive function components among youth with ASD.

“Set shifting has also been studied less than the other executive function components among youth with ASD.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One review found comparable inhibitory control test performance between co-occurring ADHD and ASD and ASD-only groups.

“By contrast, one review demonstrated comparable inhibitory control test performance among co-occurring ADHD and ASD and ASD-only groups.72”

• cites [72] Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. ADHD and behavioral inhibition: a re-examination of the stop-signal task. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 989–998 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Taken together, the literature on school-aged children suggests that ADHD and ASD may be associated with moderate deficits on non-specific executive functioning indices and moderate-to-very-large working memory deficits specifically.

“Taken together, the available literature on school-aged children suggests that ADHD and ASD might be associated with moderate deficits on non-specific indices of executive functioning, and moderate-to-very-large deficits in working memory specifically.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Methodological and diagnostic issues call these preliminary conclusions into question and highlight the need for more rigorous research on executive function profiles in ASD versus ADHD.

“However, methodological and diagnostic issues call these preliminary conclusions into question and highlight the need for more rigorous research to clarify the unity and diversity of executive function profiles in ASD vs. ADHD.”

May combine two claims.

Only 4% of children with ADHD show impairments in all three executive function components, which highlights the limited clinical utility of non-specific executive functioning measures.

“Only 4% of children with ADHD show impairments in all three components, highlighting the limited clinical utility of non-specific measures of executive functioning.53”

• cites [53] Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32, 605–617 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As research and clinical interest grew, commercial interest led to a proliferation of executive function tests and measures marketed to clinicians.

“As research and clinical interest grew, there was a corresponding commercial interest that featured a proliferation of executive function tests and measures marketed to clinicians.”

May combine two claims.

Dimensional diagnoses have not been linked to reimbursable mental healthcare services, and their use in clinical practice is limited.

“dimensional diagnoses have not been linked to reimbursable mental healthcare services and their use in clinical practice is limited.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In some cases, conceptually derived executive function subscales based on pre-existing questionnaire items were added to broadband rating scales.

“In some cases, conceptually-derived (rather than empirically-derived) executive function subscales based on pre-existing questionnaire items were added to broadband rating scales based on pre-existing item content.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The prevalence of co-occurring ASD and intellectual developmental disorder is 30-40%.

“the prevalence of co-occurring ASD and intellectual developmental disorder is 30–40%98.”

• cites [98] Miodovnik, A., Harstad, E., Sideridis, G. & Huntington, N. Timing of the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics 136, e830–e837 (2015). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Interest in executive function and its measurement has grown significantly across clinical science, cognitive science, neuropsychology, and developmental psychology.

“Interest in executive function and its measurement has grown significantly across diverse fields including clinical science, cognitive science, neuropsychology, and developmental psychology.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The digit span test shifted from a measure of verbal IQ to a measure of freedom from distractibility and is now treated as a working memory test.

“the popular digit span test transitioned from a measure of verbal IQ to a measure of freedom from distractibility and is now reified as a test of working memory.”

May combine two claims.

Independent evaluations indicate that these test batteries' subtests contribute meaningfully to a composite measure of global IQ or global neuropsychological functioning (psychometric g), but do not validly assess executive function components and distinct constructs compared with well-validated performance-based executive function tasks from the cognitive literature.

“Independent evaluations of these test batteries indicate that their subtests contribute meaningfully to a composite measure of global IQ or global neuropsychological functioning (psychometric g)118 , but do not provide a valid assessment of executive function components and distinct constructs when compared to well-validated performance-based executive function tasks from the cognitive literature.”

• cites [118] Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Sergeant, J. A., Nigg, J. & Willcutt, E. Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Clin. N. Am. 17, 367–384 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Factor-analytic studies of the WISC-V indicate that a general psychometric g factor accounts for a substantial portion (24-50% across subtests) of variance on working memory subtests, while a working memory factor accounts for less than 3% after controlling for g.

“factor-analytic studies of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-V116 show that up to half (ranging from 24–50% across subtests) of the variance on working memory subtests is attributable to a general psychometric g factor, whereas a minimal proportion of1 variance (less than 3%) is attributable to a working memory factor after accounting for the general factor.118”

• cites [116] Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E. & Kramer, J. H. Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System Assessment D-KEFS Database 10.1037/t15082-000 (APA PsycTests, 2001). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [118] Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Sergeant, J. A., Nigg, J. & Willcutt, E. Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Clin. N. Am. 17, 367–384 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

All NEPSY-II subtests showed strong subtest-specific effects, but it is unclear what constructs these effects represent.

“All subtests demonstrated strong subtest-specific effects, but it is not clear what constructs these subtest-specific effects represent.120”

• cites [120] Floyd, R. G., Bergeron, R., Hamilton, G. & Parra, G. R. How do executive functions fit with the Cattell–Horn–Carroll model? Some evidence from a joint factor analysis of the Delis–Kaplan executive function system and the Woodcock–Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Psychol. Sch. 47, 721–738 (2010). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Wechsler working memory factor has too little true score variance to support clinical interpretation and is not sufficiently reliable for clinical decisions.

“These findings indicate that the Wechsler working memory factor “possesses too little true score variance to support clinical interpretation”123 and is “not sufficiently reliable for clinical decisions.”128”

• cites [123] Canivez, G. L. et al. Construct validity of the WISC-V in clinical cases: exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the 10 primary subtests. Assessment 27, 274–296 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [128] Kranzler, J. H., Benson, N. & Floyd, R. G. Using estimated factor scores from a bifactor analysis to examine the unique effects of the latent variables measured by the WAIS-IV on academic achievement. Psychol. Assess. 27, 1402–1416 (2015). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A meta-analysis found that traditional neuropsychological measures generally do not differentiate children with ASD from children without ASD and concluded that the evidence did not support using these tests to fractionate children's performance into specific executive function components.

“a meta-analysis revealed that these measures generally do not differentiate children with ASD from children without ASD, and concluded that the evidence did not support using these tests to fractionate children’s performance into specific executive function components.61”

• cites [61] Wang, Y. et al. A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychol. Rev. 27, 46–61 (2017). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An empirical study using traditional neuropsychological tests suggested that about 47% of children with ASD demonstrate deficits in one or more executive function components.

“an empirical study using traditional neuropsychological tests suggested that about 47% of children with ASD demonstrate deficits in one or more executive function components .91”

• cites [91] Korkman, M., Kirk, U. & Kemp, S. NEPSY II: Clinical and Interpretive Manual (Harcourt Assessment, PsychCorp, 2007).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The authors' conclusion that most extant ADHD and ASD executive function studies failed to meet methodological quality benchmarks to allow firm conclusions is consistent with a recent review that judged every extant co-occurring ADHD and ASD study as methodologically poor or fair, with none rated strong.

“Our conclusion that most extant ADHD and ASD executive function studies failed to meet methodological quality benchmarks to allow firm conclusions is consistent with a recent review72 that judged every extant co-occurring ADHD and ASD study as methodologically poor or fair (none received a rating of strong).”

• cites [72] Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. ADHD and behavioral inhibition: a re-examination of the stop-signal task. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 989–998 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A study explored a computationally derived ex-Gaussian index of response inconsistency (tau), which has been shown to be a causally linked outcome of working memory but not inhibitory control.

“A partial exception to this conclusion is a study that explored a computationally derived ex-Gaussian index of response inconsistency (called tau)154, which has been shown to be a causally linked outcome of working memory but not inhibitory control15,29,155.”

• cites [154] Rapport, M. D. et al. Working memory deficits in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the contribution of central executive and subsystem processes. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 825–837 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [15] Kofler, M. J. et al. Reaction time variability in ADHD: a meta-analytic review of 319 studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33, 795–811 (2013). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [29] Rapport, M. D., Chung, K.-M., Shore, G. & Isaacs, P. A conceptual model of child psychopathology: implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 30, 48–58 (2001). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In that study, children with ADHD and co-occurring ADHD and ASD demonstrated elevated tau relative to children with ASD (without ADHD) and neurotypical children, and ADHD but not ASD uniquely predicted tau.

“In this study, children with ADHD and co-occurring ADHD and ASD demonstrated elevated tau relative to both children with ASD (without ADHD) and neurotypical children, and ADHD but not ASD uniquely predicted tau.”

• cites [154] Rapport, M. D. et al. Working memory deficits in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the contribution of central executive and subsystem processes. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 825–837 (2008). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Children with ASD comprised only about 10% of the authors' ADHD and non-ADHD samples, and methodological control for ASD was limited to including an equal number of ASD cases in both groups and conducting sensitivity analyses.

“children with ASD comprised only about 10% of our ADHD and non-ADHD samples, and methodological control for ASD was limited to including an equal number of ASD cases in both the ADHD and non-ADHD comparison groups and conducting sensitivity analyses (comparing results when including versus excluding children with ASD).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Concluding that working memory is implicated in ADHD but not ASD is arguably a stretch because tau is not solely a reflection of working memory.

“Although concluding that working memory is implicated in ADHD but not ASD is arguably a stretch because tau is not solely a reflection of working memory15,156”

• cites [15] Kofler, M. J. et al. Reaction time variability in ADHD: a meta-analytic review of 319 studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33, 795–811 (2013). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [156] Chan, E. S. M., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Singh, L. J. & Kofler, M. J. Central executive training for ADHD: impact on organizational skills at home and school. A randomized controlled trial. Neuropsychology 37, 859–871 (2023). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Despite emerging experimental and longitudinal studies providing functional (and probably causal) evidence linking cognitive/behavioral models of executive function with important behavioral and functional outcomes in ADHD and ASD, alternate executive function conceptualizations and measurement approaches are clearly warranted.

“Despite emerging experimental and longitudinal studies providing functional (and probably causal) evidence linking cognitive/behavioral models of executive function with important behavioral and functional outcomes in ADHD and ASD,33,37,92,158–161 alternate executive function conceptualizations and measurement approaches (such as neurobiological and sociocultural insights) are clearly warranted.”

• cites [33] Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E. & Raiker, J. S. ADHD and working memory: the impact of central executive deficits and exceeding storage/rehearsal capacity on observed inattentive behavior. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 38, 149–161 (2010). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [37] Ozonoff, S. in Learning and Cognition in Autism: Current Issues in Autism (eds Schopler, E. & Mesibov, G. B.) 199–219 (Springer, 1995). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [92] Wechsler, D. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 5th edn (WISC-V) (Pearson, 2014). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This methodological decision results in an incomplete picture of the heterogeneity of executive function profiles in ASD and ADHD.

“This methodological decision results in an incomplete picture of the heterogeneity of executive function profiles in ASD and ADHD.”

May combine two claims.

Boys also present with earlier onset and more severe symptoms, making them more likely to be identified as having ADHD and/or ASD at a younger age than girls.

“Boys also present with earlier onset and more serve symptoms, making them more likely to be identified as having ADHD and/or ASD at a younger age than girls.177,178”

• cites [177] Cockcroft, K. Are working memory models WEIRD? Testing models of working memory in a non-WEIRD sample. Neuropsychology 36, 456–467 (2022). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [178] Cheon, B. K., Melani, I. & Hong, Y. How USA-centric is psychology? An archival study of implicit assumptions of generalizability of findings to human nature based on origins of study samples. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 11, 928–937 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These findings are preliminary because they are based on relatively small samples and because none of the available studies also included construct-valid tests of working memory and/or set shifting.

“However, these findings are preliminary because they are based on relatively small samples and because none of the available studies also included construct-valid tests of working memory and/or set shifting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Given this bias, it is difficult to parse apart the extent to which sex differences in executive functions might be present in school-aged children with ADHD and/or ASD.

“Given this bias, it is difficult to parse apart the extent to which sex differences in executive functions might be present in school-aged children with ADHD and/or ASD.”