Socioeconomic and demographic predictors of potable water and sanitation access in Ghana

Adams, Ellis Adjei; Boateng, Godfred O.; Amoyaw, Jonathan A.

doi:10.1007/s11205-015-0912-y

Cited by 168Water Resource Management and QualityChild Nutrition and Water AccessWater Governance and Infrastructure

Socioeconomic and demographic predictors of potable water and sanitation access in Ghana

Adams, Ellis Adjei, Boateng, Godfred O., Amoyaw, Jonathan A.·2016·Social Indicators Research

DOI 10.1007/s11205-015-0912-y

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Other studies have reported that the use of unimproved toilet facilities is less likely among larger households.
“Similar to our results on the association of household size with sanitation, other studies have reported that the use of unimproved toilet facilities is less likely among larger households.27 37”
From Demographic disparities in unimproved drinking water and sanitation in Ghana: a nationally representative cross-sectional study (2022) · cites this paper as [27]

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“The sanitary risk factors established in our study such as poor waste management, agricultural activities at the vicinity of the water sources, dirty jerricans used, and no fencing of water sources to affect the quality of water from improved water sources have been found in other studies conducted in sub-Saharan Afri…”
Result
An overview of climate-sensitive sectors and its implications for future climate change risk and adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa, Ghana
Mensah, H., Nalumu, D. J., Simpeh, E. K., & Mensah, A. A. (2022) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-022-00395-8 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The struggle for water in Indonesia: the role of women and children as household water fetcher
Irianti, S., & Prasetyoputra, P. (2019) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2019.005 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Inconvenient truth: unsafely managed fecal sludge after achieving MDG for decades in Thailand
Koottatep, T., Taweesan, A., Kanabkaew, T., & Polprasert, C. (2021) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2021.118 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Urban households’ food safety knowledge and behaviour: Choice of food markets and cooking practices
Dzudzor, M. I., & Gerber, N. (2023) · Journal of Agriculture and Food Research · doi:10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100728 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Socioeconomic predictors of access to improved water sources, sanitation facilities, and household water treatment in Nigeria
Azeez, O., Henderson-Mitchell, R. J., LaFevor, M. C., & Gregg, A. (2023) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2023.169 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Drivers of sustained sanitation access: social network and demographic predictors of latrine reconstruction after flooding disasters
Chambers, K. G., Carrico, A. R., & Cook, S. M. (2021) · Environmental Science Water Research & Technology · doi:10.1039/d1ew00263e · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Access to environmental health assets across wealth strata: Evidence from 41 low- and middle-income countries
Graham, J. P., Kaur, M., & Jeuland, M. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207339 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Water, sanitation, and hygiene service inequalities and their associated factors among urban slums and rural communities in Eastern Ethiopia
Mekonnen, G. K., Zako, A., Weldegebreal, F., Desalew, A., Raru, T. B., Umer, U., & Urgesa, K. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1438748 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“It is well established that a household’s wealth index and monthly income significantly influence access to WaSH services (28), with wealthier households being more likely to have access to improved WaSH services compared to the poorest households (29, 30).”
‘You just have to stay awake and keep spying on the pipes’: Everyday experiences of piped water access in Tamale, Ghana
Ngben, J. M., & Yakubu, I. (2023) · Habitat International · doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2023.102865 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Assessing the social and economic implications on water security in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality, Eastern Cape of South Africa
Adom, R. K., Simatele, M. D., & Reid, M. (2023) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2023.078 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Households’ access and expenditure on water services: Examining intra-urban differences in the Accra metropolis, Ghana
Frimpong, L. K., Mensah, S. L., & Ablo, A. D. (2024) · Urban Governance · doi:10.1016/j.ugj.2024.07.002 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Household expenditure and accessibility of water in urban India
Tirumala, R. D., & Tiwari, P. (2022) · Environment and Planning B Urban Analytics and City Science · doi:10.1177/23998083221080178 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Water policy-related themes are some of the most widely researched topics, yet there are very few universally accepted definitions of affordability and accessibility of water (Adams, 2018; Adams et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluential
Predictors of access to safe drinking water: policy implications
Shadabi, L., & Ward, F. A. (2022) · Water Policy · doi:10.2166/wp.2022.037 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Demographic dynamics of waterborne disease and perceived associated WASH factors in Bushenyi and Sheema districts of South-Western Uganda
Onohuean, H., & Nwodo, U. U. (2023) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-023-11270-1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“5 billion (35% of the world population) lack proper or improved sanitation facilities (Pruss-Ustan et al., 2008; DeNavas-Walt & Proctor, 2014; Adams et al., 2016; Fanucchi, 2016; United Nations, 2019), and 844 million people lack access to quality and portable drinking water (Assembly, 2019; Fanucchi, 2016).”
Background
Regression Model to Evaluate the Impact of Basic Sanitation Services in Households and Schools on Child Mortality in the Municipalities of the State of Alagoas, Brazil
Cavalcanti, A., Teixeira, A., & Pontes, K. V. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11154150 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Socioeconomic determinants of water delivery satisfaction in a medium sub-Saharan Africa city: A case of Kisumu, Kenya
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Correlation between general health knowledge and sanitation improvements: evidence from rural China
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The Economic Impacts of Rural Water Supply Infrastructures in Developing Countries: Empirical Evidence from Senegal
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Demoze, L., Tigabie, M., Worede, E. A., Alemaw, H. B., Gizaw, Z., Tesfaye, A. H., & Yitageasu, G. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-24184-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Gastroenteric Viruses Detection in a Drinking Water Distribution-to-Consumption System in a Low-Income Community in Rio de Janeiro
Miagostovich, M. P., Rocha, M. S., dos Reis, F. B., Sampaio, M. S., Gracie, R., Malta, F. C., Rodrigues, J. D. S., Genuino, A., Assis, M. R. D. S., Fumian, T. M., et al. (2020) · Food and Environmental Virology · doi:10.1007/s12560-020-09423-3 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Perceptions of water quality, and current and future water consumption of residents in the central business district of Yangon city Myanmar
Ko, S. H., & Sakai, H. (2021) · Water Science & Technology Water Supply · doi:10.2166/ws.2021.212 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Understanding intra-urban inequality in networked water supply in Wa, Ghana
Jambadu, L., Dongzagla, A., & Kabange, I. (2022) · GeoJournal · doi:10.1007/s10708-022-10662-z · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Previous studies have linked these socio-spatial variations to colonial histories of racial segregations (Schramm, 2018; Smiley, 2020); socio-economic factors such as wealth and income (Adams et al., 2016; Mulenga et al., 2017); the spatial organisation of cities (Bakker et al.”
Background
Access to drinking water and sanitation in developing countries: Does financial development matter?
Tadadjeu, S., Kamguia, B., & Djeunankan, R. (2023) · International Review of Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/02692171.2023.2234837 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The effect of financial inclusion on open defecation and sharing of toilet facilities among households in Ghana
Immurana, M., Kisseih, K. G., Yusif, H. M., & Yakubu, M. Z. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264187 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“[14] but conflicts with the findings of Mulenga et al.”
BackgroundResult
Water insecurity may exacerbate food insecurity even in water-rich environments: Evidence from the Bolivian Amazon
Broyles, L. M. T., Huanca, T., Conde, E., & Rosinger, A. Y. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176705 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Access heterogeneities and collection time inequalities of drinking water sources in Ghana: implications for water and development policy
Amankwaa, G., Busia, K. A., Agbadi, P., Duah, H. O., & Arthur-Holmes, F. (2024) · Local Environment · doi:10.1080/13549839.2024.2306596 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…literature on the water and development nexus have examined the factors associated with water source selection and access to improved water sources (Adams, Boateng, and Amoyaw 2016; Armah et al. 2018), everyday practices and negotiations of water access in under-served areas and the gendered…”
Background
Machine learning-based prediction of household sanitation facility access in Sub-Saharan Africa: insights from DHS data (2012–2024)
Yitageasu, G., Alemu, E. A., Worede, E. A., Tigabie, M., & Demoze, L. (2025) · Archives of Public Health · doi:10.1186/s13690-025-01780-4 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“This finding was supported by the studies conducted in Indonesia [89], Ghana [21], Ethiopia [90], and East Africa [2], which stated that more educated households used modern or improved sanitation facilities while less educated ones used unimproved pit latrines and practiced open defecation the…”
Unequal access to improved water and sanitation in a post-conflict context of Liberia: Evidence from the Demographic and Health Survey
Amoak, D., Bruser, G., Antabe, R., Sano, Y., & Luignaah, I. (2023) · PLOS Water · doi:10.1371/journal.pwat.0000050 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Improving environmental sanitation in the catchment area of Benya Lagoon, Ghana: the non-household stakeholder role and participation dimension
Mensah, J. (2019) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2019.024 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Determinants of water security for rural households: Empirical evidence from Melani and Hamburg communities, Eastern Cape, South Africa
Ningi, T., Taruvinga, A., Zhou, L., & Ngarava, S. (2021) · Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Natuurwetenskap en Tegnologie · doi:10.36303/satnt.2021.40.1.802 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Werkende huishoudelike hoofde verdien inkomste en kan dit bekostig om waterkoste te betaal in vergelyking met werklose huishoudelike hoofde (Adams et al., 2015).”
Background
Open defecation free: where do we need to focus ?
Adhikari, R., & Ghimire, S. (2020) · Health Prospect · doi:10.3126/hprospect.v19i0.27394 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Socio–economic and demographic factors are found to be associated with access to portable water and improved sanitation facilities [17].”
Background
Les déterminants d'accès à l'eau potable au Cameroun*
ETIA, F. C. D., Mvogo, G. P., & Bidiasse, H. (2022) · African Development Review · doi:10.1111/1467-8268.12624 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Household-level drinking water quality, access, and management practices within an informal community: a case study at Rio das Pedras, Rio de Janeiro
Remigio, R. V., Rabello, R. S., Zulaika, G., Carvalho, M. S., Barrocas, P. R. G., & Lovasi, G. S. (2018) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2018.082 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Private sector impact investment in water purification infrastructure in South Africa: a qualitative analysis of opportunities and barriers
McCallum, S., & Viviers, S. (2020) · Water SA · doi:10.17159/wsa/2020.v46.i1.7880 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Water scarcity and poor water quality not only pose health risks to individuals, but also limits productivity, results in lost education hours, creates concerns regarding food security and causes other adverse socio-economic implications (Adams et al., 2016; Bigas, 2012).”
Background
Financial inclusion and improved water usage among households in Ghana
Immurana, M., Kisseih, K. G., Yakubu, M. Z., Kizhakkekara, T. J. M., Boachie, M. K., Halidu, O. B., Mohammed, J., Kaleem, I., Mohammed, A., & Doegah, P. T. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18715-3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Also, rural dwellers have been found to be less likely to have access to improved water sources relative to their urban counterparts [2, 25].”
BackgroundResult
Addressing barriers to improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) access for the promotion of healthy ageing among older persons in Ghana
Dako‐Gyeke, M., Hervie, V. M., Abekah‐Carter, K., & Darkwa, A. A. (2024) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-024-05477-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Extant studies in Ghana have explored the demographic predictors of WASH access (Adams et al., 2016), demographic disparities in unimproved drinking water and sanitation (Oppong et al., 2022), and the link between WASH access and gender empowerment (Dery, 2019).”
Exploring the determinants of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) status in Somalia: a multilevel mixed-effects modeling approach using a nationwide survey
Ali, M. A., Farih, O. A., Abokor, A. H., Abdikarim, H., Yousuf, A. M., & Muse, A. H. (2025) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2025.315 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Socioeconomic and demographic forecasters of upgraded water and sanitation facilities admittance in Rwanda
Bikorimana, G., & Sun, S. (2019) · International Journal of Social Economics · doi:10.1108/ijse-07-2019-0452 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Access to Latrine Facilities and Associated Factors in India: An Empirical and Spatial Analysis
Mondal, D. (2022) · Indian Journal of Human Development · doi:10.1177/09737030221141248 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Socio-demographic determinants of access to sanitation facilities and water in the Namibian rural areas of Omaheke and Oshikoto regions
Mosimane, A., & Kamwi, J. (2020) · African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and Development · doi:10.18697/ajfand.91.18850 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Many studies were conducted on household access to different types of sanitation facilities and factors that influence facility access in developing countries [15].”
Background
The effects of household water, sanitation, and hygiene on early childhood education enrollment: evidence from the 2022 Bangladesh demographic and health survey
Alam, A., Prodhan, M. E., Islam, F., Hasan, M. N., Chowdhury, M. A. B., & Uddin, M. J. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-23968-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Compared with poor households, wealthier households have better access to clean drinking water and sanitation facilities [19].”
Water, sanitation, and hygiene challenges in last-mile artisanal mining communities in Ghana and Uganda
Owiredu, D., Chidwick, H., Kwagala, B., Mensah, D., Osei, L., & Kapiriri, L. (2025) · Dialogues in Health · doi:10.1016/j.dialog.2025.100233 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Public Expenditure’s Role in Reducing Poverty and Improving Food and Nutrition Security: Cross-Country Evidence from SPEED Data
Takeshima, H. (2024) · European Journal of Development Research · doi:10.1057/s41287-023-00623-8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“PEE can also improve knowledge of the benefits of enhanced water and sanitation access and stimulate investments in them (Adams et al. 2016).”
The Current State and Future Prospects of Water and Sanitation Services in East Africa: The Case of Rwanda
Twagirayezu, G., Cheng, H., Nizeyimana, I., & Irumva, O. (2022) · Polish Journal of Environmental Studies · doi:10.15244/pjoes/151541 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Determinants of Access to Sanitation: The Role of Human Rights and the Challenges of Measurement
Schiel, R., Wilson, B. M., & Langford, M. (2021) · Water · doi:10.3390/w13121676 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Handwashing stations in Nepal: Role of wealth status in establishing handwashing stations at home
Sharma, M. K., Adhikari, R., & van Teijlingen, E. (2022) · World Medical & Health Policy · doi:10.1002/wmh3.523 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Assessment of knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding cholera among people living in a cholera-endemic health zone in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ntumba, H. C. K., Taty, N. M., Mako, S., & Batumbo, D. B. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-091360 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
3. Hand-dug Well Water Quality: The Case of Two Peri-Urban Communities in Ghana
Braimah, J. A., Yirenya-Tawiah, D. R., & Gordon, C. J. (2021) · West African Journal of Applied Ecology · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Do Socio-demographic Factors Influence Water-fetching Practices? Evidence from the Southwestern Coastal Region of Bangladesh
Ahmed, Z., Ahmed, M. N. Q., Hussain, A. H. M. B., Alam, R., Ambinakudige, S., Kamal, M. M., & Chowdhury, M. A. (2023) · Society & Natural Resources · doi:10.1080/08941920.2023.2234872 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Even if they do, people need to spend more time accessing water since the communal water source does not exist near their vicinity, resulting in reduced productivity in income-generating activities (Adams, Boateng, and Amoyaw 2016).”
Background
Exploring the sanitation success, sanitation technology and diarrhoeal mortality nexus in Sub-Saharan Africa
Munamati, M., Nhapi, I., & Misi, S. N. (2019) · Physics and Chemistry of the Earth Parts A/B/C · doi:10.1016/j.pce.2019.08.003 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Correlates of access to hand hygiene resources in Ghanaian households: An exploratory analysis of the 2014 demographic and health survey
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“Our result re ﬂ ects an observation by Adams et al. [14, 19].”

Socioeconomic and demographic factors affecting urban household access to improved water and sanitation in Ghana
Dongzagla, A. (2021) · GeoJournal · doi:10.1007/s10708-021-10534-y · Cited by 25 · see citing works
A multilevel analysis of regressors of access to improved drinking water and sanitation facilities in Ghana
Agbadi, P., Darkwah, E., & Kenney, P. L. (2019) · Journal of Environmental and Public Health · doi:10.1155/2019/3983869 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Factors associated with access to improved water and sanitation in 31 sub-Saharan African countries
Salifu, Y., Swaray, S. M., Dasoberi, I. N., Owusu, B. A., Fiador, B. X., Naab, I. Z., Addo, P., Acquah, V., Akanbonga, S., Adjei-Mensah, E., et al. (2026) · International Health · doi:10.1093/inthealth/ihag052 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Examining the Influence of Economic and Political Factors Upon Access to Improved Water and Sanitation in Select African Nations, 2005-2008
Jenkins, D. C. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/1295359 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Determinants of access to improved sanitation facilities in rural districts of southern Ghana: evidence from Dodowa Health and Demographic Surveillance Site
Akpakli, D. E., Manyeh, A. K., Akpakli, J. K., Kukula, V., & Gyapong, M. (2018) · BMC Research Notes · doi:10.1186/s13104-018-3572-6 · Cited by 68 · see citing works

Authors: Adams, E. A., Boateng, G. O., & Amoyaw, J. A.
Affiliations: Michigan State University (US)
Western University (CA)
Corresponding author: Adams, Ellis Adjei
ORCID: Adams, Ellis Adjei
Boateng, Godfred O.
Amoyaw, Jonathan A.
Venue: Social Indicators Research
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2015-02-24
Volume: 126
Issue: 2
Pages: 673-687
ISSN: 0303-8300 (ISSN-L)
1573-0921
DOI: 10.1007/s11205-015-0912-y
OpenAlex: W1964473461
Cited by: 168
References: 34
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 3
FWCI: 3.75
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Social Indicators Research (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resource Management and Quality
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Child Nutrition and Water Access
Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Water Governance and Infrastructure
Keywords: drinking water access, improved sanitation, socioeconomic factors, demographic factors, household income, household education, household size, regional disparities, water policy, Ghana, sub-Saharan Africa

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