The DOI matches its Crossref record; 76 of the 79 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Good Proctor or “Big Brother”? Ethics of Online Exam Supervision Technologies
Open accessAbstract
Online exam supervision technologies have recently generated significant controversy and concern. Their use is now booming due to growing demand for online courses and for off-campus assessment options amid COVID-19 lockdowns. Online proctoring technologies purport to effectively oversee students sitting online exams by using artificial intelligence (AI) systems supplemented by human invigilators. Such technologies have alarmed some students who see them as a "Big Brother-like" threat to liberty and privacy, and as potentially unfair and discriminatory. However, some universities and educators defend their judicious use. Critical ethical appraisal of online proctoring technologies is overdue. This essay provides one of the first sustained moral philosophical analyses of these technologies, focusing on ethical notions of academic integrity, fairness, non-maleficence, transparency, privacy, autonomy, liberty, and trust. Most of these concepts are prominent in the new field of AI ethics, and all are relevant to education. The essay discusses these ethical issues. It also offers suggestions for educational institutions and educators interested in the technologies about the kinds of inquiries they need to make and the governance and review processes they might need to adopt to justify and remain accountable for using online proctoring technologies. The rapid and contentious rise of proctoring software provides a fruitful ethical case study of how AI is infiltrating all areas of life. The social impacts and moral consequences of this digital technology warrant ongoing scrutiny and study.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For example, automated online proctoring has unfairly penalized people with disabilities through algorithms that flag some gestures and eye movements as “abnormal” or “unacceptable” exam behavior”
From Algorithmic harms and digital ageism in the use of surveillance technologies in nursing homes (2022) · cites this paper as Coghlan et al., 2021
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Disability studies scholars and activists have demonstrated how the introduction of automated algorithmic decision making in education, employment, and insurance promotes discrimination against embodied difference in ways of communicating, interacting, and being.”
From Algorithmic harms and digital ageism in the use of surveillance technologies in nursing homes (2022) · cites this paper as Coghlan et al., 2021
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Principles of Biomedical Ethics
(2012) · Thieves of Virtue · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9079.003.0009 · Cited by 13,453
The global landscape of AI ethics guidelines
Jobin, A., Ienca, M., & Vayena, E. (2019) · Nature Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1038/s42256-019-0088-2 · Cited by 6,220 · cited 4×
“Some of these ethical notions are prominent in the new field of AI ethics (Jobin et al., 2019), which is burgeoning as AI penetrates increasingly into various facets of our lives, including education.”
BackgroundInfluentialA Survey on Bias and Fairness in Machine Learning
Mehrabi, N., Morstatter, F., Saxena, N., Lerman, K., & Galstyan, A. (2022) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3457607 · Cited by 5,812
Floridi, L., Cowls, J., Beltrametti, M., Chatila, R., Chazerand, P., Dignum, V., Luetge, C., Madelin, R., Pagallo, U., Rossi, F., et al. (2018) · Minds and Machines · doi:10.1007/s11023-018-9482-5 · Cited by 4,774 · cited 1×
“In another recent study, Floridi et al. highlight the ideas of beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy, justice, explicability, and accountability (Floridi et al., 2018).”
BackgroundWarren, S. D., & Brandeis, L. D. (1890) · University of Washington Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9780295803661-014 · Cited by 4,092
(2018) · Cited by 3,510
Big other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization
Zuboff, S. (2015) · Journal of Information Technology · doi:10.1057/jit.2015.5 · Cited by 3,205 · cited 1×
“Finally, the values of liberty and trust are increasingly important to public concerns about fast-moving technologies, data gathering, surveillance, and the like (Zuboff, 2015).”
BackgroundAmerican Philosophical Quarterly
(2024) · American Philosophical Quarterly · doi:10.5406/21521123.61.4.08 · Cited by 2,341
(2016) · Cited by 2,334
Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life
Nissenbaum, H. (2009) · doi:10.1515/9780804772891 · Cited by 2,129
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Feldstein, S. (2019). The global expansion of AI surveillance (Vol. 17). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 222
Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Academic Research and Education
Ghotbi, N. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-079-7_143-1 · Cited by 3
Kamphorst, B. A., & Henschke, A. (2023) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-023-09732-8 · Cited by 3
Enhanced Automated Online Examination Portal Using Convolutional Neural Network
Vivek, M., Clintford, P. S., Prithvi, R., Maurya, A. K., & Jayapandian, N. (2023) · International Conference on Communication, Computing and Industry 4.0 (C2I4) · doi:10.1109/c2i659362.2023.10430811 · Cited by 3
Leveraging Institutional Integrity for the Betterment of Education
Gallant, T. B. (2024) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-54144-5_52 · Cited by 3
Virtual Overseer for Examination Using Artificial Intelligence
Varun, R., Rao, P. P., N, M. S., & Nagsharan, A. (2024) · Indonesian Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.24002/ijis.v6i2.7311 · Cited by 3
Using Biclustering to Detect Cheating in Real Time on Mixed-Format Tests
Lee, H., & Vispoel, W. P. (2025) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/00131644251333143 · Cited by 3
A Guide to Assessment in Veterinary Medical Education: 3rd EditionPreprint
Baillie, S., Rhind, S. M., & Warman, S. M. (2022) · doi:10.35542/osf.io/kectf · Cited by 4
Toward Critical and Ecological Dispositions in Technology Decision Making in Teacher EducationPreprint
Torrey Trust, Carpenter, J. P., Heath, M. K., & Krutka, D. G. (2023) · doi:10.35542/osf.io/4ecn2 · Cited by 3
Zavaleta, C. E. F. (2024) · Perfiles Educativos · doi:10.22201/iisue.24486167e.2024.185.61323 · Cited by 2
Establishing a distance PharmD program: An overview and key takeaways
Rao, S., Bray, M. M., Tuohy, K., Doyle-Campbell, C. J., Parker, D., Schneider, R., Joyner, K. R., Ladd, L., & Breeden, R. (2025) · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1016/j.cptl.2025.102540 · Cited by 2
Malhotra, M., & Chhabra, I. (2026) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-026-01275-6 · Cited by 2
Innovation, Technology, and Digital Transformation in Transnational Education (TNE)
Suntharalingam, P. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-4427-0.ch002 · Cited by 2
The Problems of Panoptic Invigilation Programs as Evidence of Cheating
Fair, C. C. (2023) · Journal of College and Character · doi:10.1080/2194587x.2023.2257335 · Cited by 2
Borges, M. D. C., dos Santos, L. L., Manso, P. H., Moisés, E. C. D., Coltro, P. S., Fonseca, P., Gentil, P. R. A., Santana, R. D. C., Rodrigues, L. F., Maciel, B. C., et al. (2024) · Journal of Educational Evaluation for Health Professions · doi:10.3352/jeehp.2024.21.32 · Cited by 2
Maleki, A. (2025) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-025-00445-2 · Cited by 2
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Literacy as a Pathway for School Teachers' Professional Development
Sagheem, M., Jan, N., Hassan, S., & Tariq, M. N. (2025) · BTTN Journal · doi:10.61732/bj.v4i1.180 · Cited by 2
Reframing Assessment to Center Equity: A Resource to Inform Practice
Jankowski, N. A. (2022) · Assessment Update · doi:10.1002/au.30294 · Cited by 2
Experiences of University Staff in Online Proctored Examination: A Phenomenological Study
Ghimire, S., & Khanal, J. (2022) · Journal of Modern Educational Research · doi:10.53964/jmer.2022008 · Cited by 2
Authenticity, Originality, and Beating the Cheats
Thomson, S., Amigud, A., & Huijser, H. (2023) · University development and administration · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-4170-4_20 · Cited by 3
Ethical Considerations Toward Protestware
Cheong, M., Kula, R. G., & Treude, C. (2023) · IEEE Software · doi:10.1109/ms.2023.3344778 · Cited by 2
Increasing Automatic Proctoring System Performance using Distributed Round-Robin Load Balancer
Nugroho, M. A., Abdurohman, M., & Erfianto, B. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Industry 4.0, Artificial Intelligence, and Communications Technology (IAICT) · doi:10.1109/iaict59002.2023.10205750 · Cited by 1
Framework for Ethical Implementation of Remote Proctoring in Education
Dyer, J. (2024) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-54144-5_151 · Cited by 1
What is Unethical About Software? User Perceptions in the Netherlands
Elias, Y., Humbert, T. P., Olson, L., & Guzmán, E. (2025) · IEEE/ACM International Conference on Software Engineering: Software Engineering in Society (ICSE-SEIS) · doi:10.1109/icse-seis66351.2025.00017 · Cited by 4
Digital Vigilance in Education Governance and Insurance for AI Proctoring
AbuAisheh, S., Teh, Y. W., & Shuib, L. M. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-6340-0.ch002 · Cited by 1
Baral, R. K., & Ghimire, S. N. (2025) · Advances in Mobile Learning Educational Research · doi:10.25082/amler.2026.01.002 · Cited by 1
Ahmad, Z., Soroya, M. S., & Awais, A. (2025) · Journal of Academic Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10805-025-09697-x · Cited by 1
Evaluating Trustworthiness in BYOD Online Exams via Smartphone Screenshots
Sukmana, Y., Nugraha, I. G. B. B., & Rosmansyah, Y. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3646711 · Cited by 1
The three-eyed invigilator: an AI-powered interactive rotator for enhanced online exam proctoring
Taj, I., Wazan, A. S., & Bey, A. (2026) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-026-11844-3 · Cited by 1
Re-Examining the Examiners: Changes in Privacy and Security Perceptions of Exam Proctoring
Hutchinson, A., Ly, E., Munyendo, C. W., & Aviv, A. J. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790794 · Cited by 1
Sztuczna inteligencja w edukacji. Między inkluzją a marginalizacją
Jaskuła, S. (2026) · Zeszyty Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego Jana Pawła II · doi:10.31743/znkul.20093 · Cited by 1
Transitioning eLearning in a Transitioning Instructional World
Reisman, S. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-08939-8_2 · Cited by 1
SupTech Governance in Regulatory/Supervisory Government Agencies: A Systematic Literature Review
Mayasari, D., & Arman, A. A. (2022) · International Conference on Information Technology Systems and Innovation · doi:10.1109/icitsi56531.2022.9970863 · Cited by 1
Navigating the Current “New World” of Teaching with Technology: A Glimpse into Our Teachers’ Minds
Cooney, M., & Sjöberg, J. (2023) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-31392-9_11 · Cited by 1
Fawns, T., & Schaepkens, S. P. C. (2023) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781003263463-9 · Cited by 2
Makgakga, T. P. (2023) · Progressio South African Journal for Open and Distance Learning Practice · doi:10.25159/2663-5895/12541 · Cited by 1
Yıldırım, D., Ilgaz, H., Bayazıt, A., & Akçapınar, G. (2023) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v24i4.7145 · Cited by 1
Prabowo, S., Abdurohman, M., Nuha, H. H., & Sutikno, S. (2024) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47715-7_36 · Cited by 1
La evaluación en línea en el punto de mira: Un estudio de caso en la universidad española
Marín, V. I., Rodríguez, J. L. C., Baiges, E. B., & Farrán, F. X. C. (2024) · Revista Electrónica Educare · doi:10.15359/ree.28-1.18426 · Cited by 1
Exploring AI-Assisted Students Online Proctoring System
Jaisingh, W., & Thangavel, M. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-2440-0.ch007 · Cited by 1
Dunnigan, G. M., & Panini, R. (2024) · PRIMUS · doi:10.1080/10511970.2024.2385825 · Cited by 1
Implementation of Automatic Proctoring in Online Exam System
Alimudin, A., Muhammad, A. F., Sarinastiti, W., Yuwono, W., Winarno, I., Santoso, R., Murdaningtyas, C. D., Ilyas, M. I., & Muktasib, M. R. (2024) · International Electronics Symposium (IES) · doi:10.1109/ies63037.2024.10665805 · Cited by 1
Development of ethical codes for instructors engaged in distance education: a Delphi study
Karataş, A., & Şimşek, N. (2024) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2024.2412079 · Cited by 1
Aruğaslan, E. (2025) · Buca eğitim fakültesi dergisi (Online)/Buca Eğitim Fakültesi dergisi · doi:10.53444/deubefd.1543471 · Cited by 1
Nair, G. S. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-7467-3.ch008 · Cited by 1
Online exams: exploring student experience and integrity behaviours as we return to campus
Henderson, M., Awdry, R., Chung, J., Ashford, C., Bryant, M., Mundy, M. E., & Ryan, K. (2022) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.14742/apubs.2022.95 · Cited by 1
Framework for Ethical Implementation of Remote Proctoring in Education
Dyer, J. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-079-7_151-1 · Cited by 1
Leveraging Institutional Integrity for the Betterment of Education
Gallant, T. B. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-079-7_52-2 · Cited by 1
Exploring alternative invigilated assessments in higher education
Kinley, K. (2023) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.14742/apubs.2023.511 · Cited by 1
AI-Driven Learning: Current Applications, Challenges, and Future Prospects
Ismail, I. A., Alkhateeb, M. O., & Alkaabi, M. H. (2025) · Advances in Computational Intelligence and Robotics · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-7873-1.ch001 · Cited by 1
Online assessment solution without in-person proctoring
Breazu, M., Crețulescu, R., & Morariu, D. I. (2021) · International Journal of Advanced Statistics and IT&C for Economics and Life Sciences · doi:10.2478/ijasitels-2021-0003
On The Problems and Countermeasures of Online Teaching Under The COVID-19 Pandemic Situation
Zhen, G. (2022) · The Proceedings of the International Conference of Advanced Research in Education. · doi:10.33422/5th.educationconf.2022.08.20
СОСТОЯНИЕ, ПРОБЛЕМЫ И ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ РАЗВИТИЯ СОВРЕМЕННОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
университет», Ф. В. «. Г. Т., Артюхина, А. И., Игоревич, Ч. В., университет», Ф. В. «. Г. Т., Velikanova, O. F., университет», Ф. В. «. Г. Т., Великанов, В. В., университет», Ф. В. «. Г. Т., Владимировна, Я. Н., Вернадского», Ф. В. «. И. В. И., et al. (2022) · ICSP «NEW SCIENCE» eBooks · doi:10.46916/07122022-978-5-00174-782-6
Reframing Assessment to Center Equity: A Resource to Inform Practice
Jankowski, N. A. (2023) · The National Teaching & Learning Forum · doi:10.1002/ntlf.30358
Cheating in Online Exams at Vietnamese Mid-Ranked Universities
Thi, H. N. (2022) · International Conference on Digital Technology in Education (ICDTE) · doi:10.1145/3568739.3568773
Hamilton, M. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95662-8.00010-2
Strategies for Teaching Effective Large Enrollment Online Classes
Guthrie, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-31214-4_20
Enabling Ableism: Using Academic Integrity Arguments to Create Disability in Testing Environments
McDermott, B. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-079-7_129-1
Leveraging Institutional Integrity for the Betterment of Education
Gallant, T. B. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-39989-3_52
Remote Proctoring: Understanding the Debate
Dawson, P. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-39989-3_150
Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Academic Research and Education
Ghotbi, N. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-39989-3_143
Enabling Ableism: Using Academic Integrity Arguments to Create Disability in Testing Environments
McDermott, B. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-39989-3_129
Framework for Ethical Implementation of Remote Proctoring in Education
Dyer, J. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-39989-3_151
E-Quiz: Empowering Educators with a Self-Contained and Programmable Online Exam System
Chan, C., Zhao, C., Chau, W. T., Zhou, Y., Liang, Q., & Lim, M. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering · doi:10.1109/tale56641.2023.10398402
Klement, M. (2024) · Trends in Education · doi:10.5507/tvv.2023.007
Vijaypriya, V., Dhanesh, M. P. M., Giridhar, M. V. S. S., & Harish, M. B. L. (2024) · International Journal of Research in Science Commerce Arts Management and Technology · doi:10.48175/ijarsct-15937
IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications
(2024) · IEEE Software · doi:10.1109/ms.2024.3376023
Mutambara, D., & Chibisa, A. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56953-1_13
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ELECTRONIC EXAMINATION PLATFORM USING FACE RECOGNITION METHODS
Sulaiman, M. A. (2024) · Science Journal of University of Zakho · doi:10.25271/sjuoz.2024.12.3.1289 · Cited by 1
Crowd-Sourced Supervisors for the Automatic Invigilation of Online Assessments
Visentin, N. A., Mhlongo, S., & Ade-Ibijola, A. (2024) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-68617-7_26
Durchführung von Online-Klausuren in der dermatologischen Lehre
Wiegand, C., & Tittelbach, J. (2024) · Aktuelle Dermatologie · doi:10.1055/a-2332-6853
Die Ethik der KI in Universitäten: Im Spannungsfeld zwischen Qualität, Identität und Privatsphäre
Gray, S. L. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-43816-6_7
Navigating the Virtual Landscape
Asrifan, A., Tayibu, K. N., Dewi, A. C., Herlina, H., Lukman, L., & Irviana, I. (2024) · Advances in human and social aspects of technology book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-3868-1.ch002
Farhadi, B. (2024) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47411-8_32-1
Enstroem, R., & Benson, L. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-13701-3.00540-5
Mustabsyirah, M., Damopolii, M., & Yaumi, M. (2025) · YASIN · doi:10.58578/yasin.v5i1.4683
A Review on AI - Powered Digital Identity Authentication for Remote Examination
Srivastava, S., Kumar, N. N., Khushi, M., Varshini, C. G., Bhumika, P. M., & Sree Snigdha, T. (2025) · International Conference on Mobile Computing and Sustainable Informatics (ICMCSI) · doi:10.1109/icmcsi64620.2025.10883372
Farhadi, B. (2025) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-76485-1_32
User Perceptions of Ethical Issues in Software
Humbert, T. P. (2025) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Software Engineering: Companion Proceedings (ICSE-Companion) · doi:10.1109/icse-companion66252.2025.00048
The Theory and Implementation of Online University Oral Exams
Furcsa, L., & Szaszkó, R. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-6013-3.ch007
AI, Education, and World-Building
Powles, J. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198940272.013.0033
Mncube, S. (2025) · Conference on Information Communications Technology and Society (ICTAS) · doi:10.1109/ictas64866.2025.11155607
Academic Dishonesty and Online Examinations
Lulseged, A. A., & Upton, D. (2025) · Issues in Accounting Education · doi:10.2308/issues-2024-007
Coşkun, K., & Durmuş, M. (2025) · Türkbilig / Türkoloji Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.59257/turkbilig.1685958
Hui, D., Subramaniam, S. K., Abdullah, L. C., Muhammed, A., Liu, H., Hui, Y., & Liu, Z. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8502983/v1
Kabasakal, K. A., Koçak, D. Ç., & Akcan, R. (2026) · KIRŞEHİR EĞİTİM FAKÜLTESİ DERGİSİ · doi:10.29299/kefad.1732570
Ravesloot, J. H., Donkers, J. H. H. L. M., Meiboom, A. A., Langers, A. M. J., Jacobs, B., Tio, R. A., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Bremers, A. J. A. (2026) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.5334/pme.1771
Aziz, R. C., Zain, M. M., Chea, C. C., & Ninggal, M. T. M. (2025) · International Conference on Educational Communications and Technology (ICTAECT) · doi:10.1109/ictaect67351.2025.11391268
Ethical and Privacy Concerns of Artificial Intelligence in Education
Yadav, A. K., Tomar, G., & Jha, D. K. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-8027-8.ch013
Zhang, J., Tang, Y., Hu, Y., Wang, T. Y., Song, H., Lu, Z., & Gong, J. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790937
A Survey on Data-Driven Integrity Monitoring and Learning Optimization in Online Assessments
Krupić, M., Кеčo, D., Hajro, A., & Korman, A. (2026) · International Symposium INFOTEH-JAHORINA (INFOTEH) · doi:10.1109/infoteh68759.2026.11477678
Abouelenein, Y. A. M., Khalaf, M. H. R., Ghazala, A. F. A., & Mahdy, E. M. M. (2026) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-026-14005-0
ProctorPlus: Smart AI Solution for Online Exam Monitoring
Amal, M., Sabu, G., Joji, S., Sebastian, T., & Thomas, M. V. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Emerging Computing and Intelligent Technologies (ICoECIT) · doi:10.1109/icoecit68303.2026.11497939
Technological Innovations in Medical Education in the Context of COVID-19
Ibrahim, M., Cramer, P., & Olken, M. H. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-19116-8_6
Toward Intelligent Assessment in HyFlex Learning
Heil, J., Fromm, Y. M., & Ifenthaler, D. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-6182-6.ch010
A Server-Authoritative and AI-Enhanced Architecture for Secure Online Examinations
Oktian, Y. E., & Le, T.-T.-H. (2026) · International Conference on Current Research in Artificial Intelligence and Data Science (ICCRAIDS) · doi:10.1109/iccraids67816.2026.11519766
Exploring Online Proctoring Solutions
Swaby-Frazer, R., & Noel, E. O. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-8800-7.ch011
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, ETHICS, AND LEGAL ACCOUNTABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Srivastava, M., Sahoo, G. R., Bhatt, G., Mukherji, J., Singh, J., & Mohapatra, A. (2026) · ShodhKosh Journal of Visual and Performing Arts · doi:10.29121/shodhkosh.v7.i14s.2026.8537 · Cited by 1
Scrolling with Caution: Perceptions of Older Adults on Ethical Issues in Social Media
Katib, H. H., Kota, S. P., & Guzmán, E. (2026) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Software Engineering: Companion Proceedings (ICSE-Companion) · doi:10.1145/3786581.3786925
Metadata
- Authors
- Coghlan, S., Miller, T., & Paterson, J.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Coghlan, Simon
- Venue
- Philosophy & Technology
- Published
- 2021-08-31
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1581-1606
- ISSN
- 2210-5433 (ISSN-L)
- 2210-5441
- PMC
- PMC8407138
- OpenAlex
- W3197804775
- Cited by
- 219
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 44.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Philosophy & Technology (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Academic integrity and plagiarism
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Social Sciences › Education › Digital Education and Society
- Keywords
- online proctoring, AI ethics, academic integrity, privacy, student independence, fairness, non-maleficence, transparency, trust, surveillance
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review