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Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance
Open accessAbstract
Sweat losses in team sports can be significant due to repeated bursts of high-intensity activity, as well as the large body size of athletes, equipment and uniform requirements, and environmental heat stress often present during training and competition. In this paper we aimed to: (1) describe sweat losses and fluid balance changes reported in team sport athletes, (2) review the literature assessing the impact of hypohydration on cognitive, technical, and physical performance in sports-specific studies, (3) briefly review the potential mechanisms by which hypohydration may impact team sport performance, and (4) discuss considerations for future directions. Significant hypohydration (mean body mass loss (BML) >2%) has been reported most consistently in soccer. Although American Football, rugby, basketball, tennis, and ice hockey have reported high sweating rates, fluid balance disturbances have generally been mild (mean BML <2%), suggesting that drinking opportunities were sufficient for most athletes to offset significant fluid losses. The effect of hydration status on team sport performance has been studied mostly in soccer, basketball, cricket, and baseball, with mixed results. Hypohydration typically impaired performance at higher levels of BML (3-4%) and when the method of dehydration involved heat stress. Increased subjective ratings of fatigue and perceived exertion consistently accompanied hypohydration and could explain, in part, the performance impairments reported in some studies. More research is needed to develop valid, reliable, and sensitive sport-specific protocols and should be used in future studies to determine the effects of hypohydration and modifying factors (e.g., age, sex, athlete caliber) on team sport performance.
Overview
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TL;DR
This review compiles fluid balance and hypohydration performance effects in team sport athletes. Significant hypohydration (>2% body mass loss) is reported most consistently in soccer, while performance impairments are mixed but more likely at 3–4% body mass loss and when dehydration involves heat stress.
Key findings
- In soccer, mean sweating rate ranged from 0.3–2.5 L/h and mean fluid balance from +0.4% to −3.5% body mass; significant hypohydration (>2% BML) was reported most consistently in soccer. American Football, rugby, basketball, tennis, and ice hockey showed high sweating rates, but fluid balance disturbances were generally mild (mean BML <2%).
- Across 20 original performance studies, hypohydration typically impaired performance at higher BML (3–4% difference between trials) and when dehydration involved heat stress. For example, in basketball, total sprint time was longer by ~7%, ~8%, and ~16% at 2%, 3%, and 4% BML, and total shots made decreased by 7–12% at 2–4% BML; in cricket, fluid restriction to 3.7% BML reduced bowling accuracy by 19.8% and throwing accuracy by 22.3% (sidearm) and 14.2% (overarm).
- Increased subjective ratings of fatigue and perceived exertion consistently accompanied hypohydration; 10 of 11 team sport studies measuring perceived exertion or fatigue found significantly elevated ratings with fluid restriction versus fluid intake.
- Cognitive and skill effects were equivocal: cognition was impaired in some studies (e.g., vigilance, decision-making time, working-memory reaction time, reactive agility) but not others; skill was impaired in basketball and cricket at ~2–4% BML, with minimal impact in soccer, field hockey, and tennis.
Methods
- Narrative review using PubMed and EBSCO searches through September 2016, including English-language full-length peer-reviewed articles; abstracts and unpublished observations were excluded.
- The search identified 75 original studies measuring sweating rate and/or fluid balance during training or competition and 20 original studies measuring hypohydration effects on performance in team sport athletes.
- Studies were summarized by sport and risk for hypohydration; performance outcomes were grouped into cognition, sport-specific skill, sprinting, lateral movements, jumping/anaerobic power, and intermittent high-intensity running capacity, with modifying factors tabulated.
Limitations
- The paper states that a common limitation is difficulty blinding subjects to dehydration versus rehydration; many cognitive tests were not sport-specific (except one field hockey study), and validity/reliability of skill tests was not reported in basketball, tennis, and cricket studies. It also notes few studies included female or youth athletes, and no studies directly compared modifying factors such as sex, age, or athlete caliber.
- The paper states that control trials varied in the degree of BML accrued, making cross-study comparison difficult, and that most studies involved only low-to-moderate hypohydration.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without pooled effect sizes; protocols, dehydration methods, BML differences, environmental conditions, and performance tests were heterogeneous, and many included studies had small samples.
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Claims the paper makes
0 Valid · 5 Not valid · 123 Not checked · 73 Own results and interpretations
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increased subjective ratings of fatigue and perceived exertion consistently accompanied hypohydration”
- Also stated in: § Key Points · plain
“increased subjective ratings of fatigue and perceived exertion consistently accompany hypohydration in team sport studies”
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Abstract
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Key Points · plain
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect of hydration status on team sport performance has been mixed.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“The effect of hydration status on team sport performance has been mixed.”
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Key Points
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although American Football, rugby, basketball, tennis, and ice hockey have reported high sweating rates, fluid balance disturbances have generally been mild (mean BML <2%)”
- Also stated in: § Key Points · plain
“Although other sports (e.g., American Football, rugby, basketball, tennis, and ice hockey) have reported high sweating rates, fluid balance disturbances have generally been mild”
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Also stated in: § Key Points · plain
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Significant hypohydration (mean body mass loss (BML) >2%) has been reported most consistently in soccer.”
- Also stated in: § Key Points · plain
“Significant hypohydration (>2% body mass deficit) has been reported most consistently in soccer.”
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Abstract
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, studies in soccer [16, 22] and tennis [58] have reported that warm–hot conditions elicited higher sweating rates during match play than cool–temperate environments.”
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Fluid Balance in Team Sports
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [16] Mohr M, Nybo L, Grantham J, et al. Physiological responses and physical performance during football in the heat. PLoS One. 2012;7(6):e39202. source
- Not checked yetcites [22] Mustafa KY, Mahmoud NE. Evaporative water loss in African soccer players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1979;19(2):181–3.
- Not checked yetcites [58] Hornery DJ, Farrow D, Mujika I, et al. An integrated physiological and performance profile of professional tennis. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41(8):531–6 (discussion 6). source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Literature Review of Hypohydration and Performance > Sport-Specific Skills
“Dougherty et al. [103] reported that 2% hypohydration was associated with significantly lower shooting percentage (by 8% combined for all shots) compared with euhydration.”
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Methodological Aspects > Literature Search Criteria
“Overall shooting percentage for long-range shots (3-point shots, 15-ft shots, and free throws) lower (by 8%) in HYPO trialNS: layup shooting percentage”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Literature Review of Hypohydration and Performance > Sport-Specific Skills
“Devlin et al. [109] compared the effects of fluid restriction (2.8% BML) versus prescribed fluid intake (0.9% BML)”
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Methodological Aspects > Literature Search Criteria
“−2.8% (HYPO trial),−0.5% (EUH trial)”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Fluid Balance in Team Sports
“For example, Australian Rules Footballers exhibited higher sweating rates and accrued greater levels of hypohydration during high-intensity training and game simulations (1.1–1.3 L/h and 3.4–3.5% BML) compared with low-intensity training (0.8 L/h and 2.1% BML) [34].”
§ Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance > Methodological Aspects > Literature Search Criteria
“| Moderate | Australian Rules Football | 2 | 79, 80 | 0.9–2.1 | −1.8 to −3.0 |”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Nuccio, R. P., Barnes, K. A., Carter, J. M., & Baker, L. B.
- Affiliations
- Gatorade Sports Science Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Nuccio, Ryan P.
- Venue
- Sports Medicine
- Published
- 2017-05-15
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1951-1982
- ISSN
- 0112-1642 (ISSN-L)
- 1179-2035
- PMC
- PMC5603646
- OpenAlex
- W2613635638
- Cited by
- 252
- References
- 183
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 2
- FWCI
- 2.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Sports Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Gatorade Sports Science Institute
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Thermoregulation and physiological responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports injuries and prevention
- Keywords
- hypohydration, fluid balance, team sport athletes, sweat loss, weight loss, soccer, hydration status, cognitive performance, technical performance, physical performance, heat stress, fatigue, perceived exertion, hydration protocol
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Cognition, Dehydration, Female, Humans, Male, Sports, Water-Electrolyte Balance, Reproducibility of Results, Athletic Performance, Athletes
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-13, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-13 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
