The DOI matches its Crossref record; 98 of the 98 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 22 of the 74 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects
Open accessAbstract
The presence of chemical compounds formed as disinfection by-products (DBPs) is widespread in developed countries, and virtually whole populations are exposed to these chemicals through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal absorption from drinking water and swimming pools. Epidemiological evidence has shown a consistent association between long-term exposure to trihalomethanes and the risk of bladder cancer, although the causal nature of the association is not conclusive. Evidence concerning other cancer sites is insufficient or mixed. Numerous studies have evaluated reproductive implications, including sperm quality, time to pregnancy, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy outcomes such as fetal loss, fetal growth, preterm delivery, and congenital malformation. The body of evidence suggests only minor effects from high exposure during pregnancy on fetal growth indices such as small for gestational age (SGA) at birth. Populations highly exposed to swimming pools such as pool workers and professional swimmers show a higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms and asthma, respectively, although the direction of the association, and thus causality, is not clear among professional swimmers. The risk of asthma, wheezing, eczema, and other respiratory outcomes among children attending swimming pools has been the object of extensive research. Early studies suggested a positive association, while subsequent larger studies found no correlations or showed a protective association. Future research should develop methods to evaluate the effects of the DBP mixture and the interaction with personal characteristics (e.g., genetics, lifestyle), clarify the association between swimming pools and respiratory health, evaluate the occurrence of DBPs in low- and middle-income countries, and evaluate outcomes suggested by animal studies that have not been considered in epidemiological investigations.
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Claims the paper makes
24 No full text of the sources · 19 Own interpretation · 16 No basis given · 12 Partly supported · 8 Sources not found · 6 Supported · 1 Mixed support · 1 Not supported · 1 Not checked yet · accuracy not yet measured
Some cited sources support this claim and some don’t — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“However, studies in other European countries such as Germany [91], Spain [92,93], the UK [94•], and the Netherlands [95], have found no association between swimming pool attendance and respiratory symptoms among children.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [91] Schoefer Y, Zutavern A, Brockow I, et al. Health risks of early swimming pool attendance. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2008;211(3–4):367–73. source
- Disputedcites [92] Font-Ribera L, Kogevinas M, Zock JP, et al. Swimming pool attendance and risk of asthma and allergic symptoms in children. Eur Respir J. 2009;34(6):1304–10. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
For the Spanish study, the Discussion states that pool attendance was associated with slightly fewer upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms, rather than no association. The Results also report a lower prevalence of current asthma among children currently attending pools (OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.25–0.83) and less rhinitis with longer attendance. This paper does not provide the findings for the other countries cited in the sentence. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
- Supportedcites [93] Font-Ribera L, Villanueva CM, Gracia-Lavedan E, et al. Indoor swimming pool attendance and respiratory and dermal health in schoolchildren—HITEA Catalonia. Respir Med. 2014;108(7):1056–9. source
This citation is attached to the Spain portion of the list, and the cited study examined Catalan schoolchildren. The Results report that early swimming was not related to respiratory symptoms and current attendance was not associated with symptoms in the last 12 months; the Discussion likewise reports no increased risk of asthma or wheezing. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not matchedcites [94•]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The bladder has been the most frequently evaluated cancer site, including two meta-analyses [49,50] and two pooled analyses [40, 51•].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Bladder Cancer
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [49] King W. Epidemiological studies of disinfection by-products and cancer risk. In: Craun GF, Hauchman FS, Robinson DE, editors. Microbiological pathogens and disinfection by-products in drinking water: health effects and management of risks. Washington, DC: ILSI Press; 2001. p. 243–54.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites [50] Villanueva CM, Fernandez F, Malats N, et al. Meta-analysis of studies on individual consumption of chlorinated drinking water and bladder cancer. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2003;57(3):166–73. source
The title identifies this paper as a meta-analysis of chlorinated drinking water and bladder cancer. The Data section confirms that it pooled bladder-cancer studies, so it supports its use as an example of a bladder-cancer meta-analysis among citations [49,50]. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Not matchedcites [40, 51•]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“A meta-analysis by Villanueva et al. (2003) of six case-control and two cohort studies showed a combined relative risk of 1.6 (95 % CI,1.2-2.2) in men and 1.4 (95 % CI 0.6-3.6) in women for more than 40 years of exposure to chlorinated water.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Bladder Cancer
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Villanueva et al. (2003) source
Table 3 (indexed under CORRECTION; page not specified) reports long-term combined estimates of 1.6 (95% CI 1.2–2.2) for men and 1.4 (95% CI 0.6–3.6) for women. The Abstract defines long-term consumption as more than 40 years and identifies six case-control and two cohort studies. The paper labels these estimates meta-odds ratios rather than relative risks. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In particular, the results of a study by Cantor et al. (2010) indicated an increased risk of bladder cancer in participants with certain polymorphisms of genes coding for enzymes involved in the metabolism of DBPs [17] and of other xenobiotics [54].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Bladder Cancer
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Cantor et al. (2010) source
The Discussion reports that bladder cancer risk rose more strongly with increasing long-term DBP exposure among participants with specified GSTT1, GSTZ1, and CYP2E1 genotypes. It also notes that the polymorphisms alone had weak, nonsignificant associations with risk. The citing sentence assigns the separate point about other xenobiotics to reference [54], not this paper. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Supportedcites [17] Cantor KP, Villanueva CM, Silverman DT, et al. Polymorphisms in GSTT1, GSTZ1, and CYP2E1, disinfection by-products, and risk of bladder cancer in Spain. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118(11):1545–50. source
The Discussion reports that bladder cancer risk rose more strongly with increasing long-term DBP exposure among participants with specified GSTT1, GSTZ1, and CYP2E1 genotypes. It also says the overall association between these polymorphisms and bladder cancer, without considering DBP exposure, was weak and nonsignificant. The separate claim about other xenobiotics is attached to a different citation. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not matchedcites [54] Bull R. Toxicological evaluation of experimental data that informs the magnitude of cancer risk from DBPs. In: Hrudey SE, Charrois JW, editors. Disinfection by-products and human health. London: IWA Publishing; 2012. p. 179–212.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“No association with hypospadias was found in this meta-analysis (four studies).”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Congenital Malformations
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [77] Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Martinez D, Grellier J, et al. Chlorination disinfection by-products in drinking water and congenital anomalies: review and meta-analyses. Environ Health Perspect. 2009;117(10):1486–93. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results state that the hypospadias meta-analysis found no statistically significant association with chlorinated water or TTHM levels. The passages in our copy do not establish that the meta-analysis included four studies, so that detail remains unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.82)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“A recent investigation based on the U.S. National Birth Defects Prevention Study suggested a few increased risks (gastroschisis) associated with shower length [78].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Congenital Malformations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [78] Agopian AJ, Waller DK, Lupo PJ, et al. A case–control study of maternal bathing habits and risk for birth defects in offspring. Environ Health. 2013;12:88. source
The Methods (Study population; no page number provided) identify the National Birth Defects Prevention Study as the source of the cases and controls. The Abstract (Results; no page number provided) reports increased gastroschisis risk with showers lasting ≥15 versus <15 minutes, consistent with the citing sentence’s cautious wording. (LLM, conf=0.94)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“A subsequent study conducted in North Carolina with a refined exposure characterization did not confirm these results [66].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fertility
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [66] Savitz DA, Singer PC, Herring AH, et al. Exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products and pregnancy loss. Am J Epidemiol. 2006;164(11):1043–51. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion report less support for the California association and describe refined exposure characterization. But the paper describes this as a study at three US locations, not a study conducted in North Carolina; its mention of the University of North Carolina concerns sample analysis, not a study site. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The overall picture as summarized in a 2009 metaanalysis of eight studies depicted a slight increase in SGA risk with exposure to THMs [75].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fetal Growth
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [75] Grellier J, Benett J, Patelarou E, et al. Exposure to disinfection by-products and adverse birth outcomes related to fetal growth and prematurity—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiology. 2010;21(3):300–13. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Studies conducted in Belgium reported an increased risk of asthma among children with atopy that was associated with early indoor [87][88][89] and outdoor [90] swimming pool attendance.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [87][88][89]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites [90] Bernard A, Nickmilder M, Voisin C. Outdoor swimming pools and the risks of asthma and allergies during adolescence. Eur Respir J. 2008;32(4):979–88. source
Citation [90] supports the outdoor-pool part of the sentence; the indoor-pool claim has separate citations. The Results report that associations with asthma persisted for outdoor-pool attendance from birth to age 7, and the Discussion reports increased asthma risk particularly among children with higher IgE levels. The outcomes were assessed in adolescence. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Studies have consistently reported no association between maternal DBP exposure and preterm delivery [75].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Gestational Duration
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [75] Grellier J, Benett J, Patelarou E, et al. Exposure to disinfection by-products and adverse birth outcomes related to fetal growth and prematurity—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiology. 2010;21(3):300–13. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and discussion report little or no evidence of an association between third-trimester TTHM exposure and preterm delivery, and the postprint discussion says earlier narrative reviews also found no association. But the Health outcomes section describes individual study results as mixed, so the paper does not support saying studies consistently reported no association across maternal DBP exposures. (LLM, conf=0.86)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“A monotonic decrease in cycle length and follicular phase length was observed in association with total THM, which was stronger with brominated compounds [63].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fertility
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [63] Windham GC, Waller K, Anderson M, et al. Chlorination by-products in drinking water and menstrual cycle function. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111(7):935–41. source
The Discussion reports a monotonic dose-response for total trihalomethane (TTHM) concentration, with shorter menstrual cycles and corresponding shorter follicular phases. The Results (p. 938) report monotonic decreases in both lengths with increasing brominated THM levels, supporting the stated stronger association. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelationaln = 403- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Three cases of occupational asthma as a result of trichloramine sensitization have been described among lifeguards [83].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Swimming Pools and Respiratory Health
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [83] Thickett KM, McCoach JS, Gerber JM, et al. Occupational asthma caused by chloramines in indoor swimming-pool air. Eur Respir J. 2002;19(5):827–32. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract reports three workers with occupational asthma following airborne chloramine exposure, and the Discussion identifies nitrogen trichloride as a cause. But the Results identify only two as lifeguards; the third was a swimming instructor. The Discussion also says the mechanism was not completely clear, so trichloramine sensitization was not established for all three. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaindirectn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Reported levels of trichloramine in swimming pool air from studies in Belgium [88,89], Spain [92], and the Netherlands [95] have noted overall levels that were below the 0.5 mg/m 3 recommended by the WHO [96].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [88] Bernard A, Carbonnelle S, Dumont X, et al. Infant swimming practice, pulmonary epithelium integrity, and the risk of allergic and respiratory diseases later in childhood. Pediatrics. 2007;119(6):1095–103. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [89] Bernard A, Nickmilder M, Voisin C, et al. Impact of chlorinated swimming pool attendance on the respiratory health of adolescents. Pediatrics. 2009;124(4):1110–8. source
- Partly supportedcites [92] Font-Ribera L, Kogevinas M, Zock JP, et al. Swimming pool attendance and risk of asthma and allergic symptoms in children. Eur Respir J. 2009;34(6):1304–10. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports trichloramine levels below the 0.5 mg/m³ WHO recommendation in the Spanish study population (median 0.16 mg/m³) and in the cited Belgian study (0.325 mg/m³). But it reports 0.565 mg/m³ for the Netherlands, above that threshold, so the claim does not hold for all three countries. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [95] Jacobs JH, Fuertes E, Krop EJ, et al. Swimming pool attendance and respiratory symptoms and allergies among Dutch children. Occup Environ Med. 2012;69(11):823–30. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Animal experiments have suggested biological endpoints of DBP exposure such as neurodevelopmental outcomes and delayed puberty [11,99]”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [11] Guariglia SR, Jenkins Jr EC, Chadman KK, et al. Chlorination byproducts induce gender specific autistic-like behaviors in CD-1 mice. Neurotoxicology. 2011;32(5):545–53. source
- Partly supportedcites [99] Klinefelter GR, Strader LF, Suarez JD, et al. Continuous exposure to dibromoacetic acid delays pubertal development and compromises sperm quality in the rat. Toxicol Sci. 2004;81(2):419–29. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not supplied) reports delayed pubertal markers in male and female rats continuously exposed to dibromoacetic acid, a disinfection by-product. Our copy does not report neurodevelopmental outcomes, so it supports only the delayed-puberty part of the sentence. (LLM, conf=0.87)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“only a few DBP markers have been used in epidemiological studies”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other reproductive effects such as semen quality do not show a clear association with DBP exposure.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms, including asthma, has been found among subjects occupationally exposed to swimming pools”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
“A higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms has been described in swimming pool workers”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these have not yet been evaluated in human epidemiological studies.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“do not necessarily correlate with the putative agent or the total DBP content.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Future Directions
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“long-term exposure to high levels has been consistently associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer among men.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies in children have reported contradictory results.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
“There is mixed evidence linking swimming pool attendance and respiratory health among children”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“higher rates of asthma are found among professional swimmers.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The body of evidence suggests only minor effects from high exposure during pregnancy on fetal growth indices such as small for gestational age (SGA) at birth.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Abstract
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evidence concerning other cancer sites is insufficient or mixed.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that there is sufficient evidence in animals for the carcinogenicity of chloroform [9] and other widespread disinfection by-products.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Experimental Evidence and Mechanisms of Action
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [9] IARC. International Agency for Research on Cancer Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Some chemicals that cause tumors of the kidney or urinary bladder in rodents and some other substances. Vol 73. In: International Agency for Research on Cancer, editor. Some chemicals that cause tumors of the kidney or urinary bladder in rodents and some other substances. Vol 73. Lyon: IARC, 1999: 131–182.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Experimental studies in volunteers have shown a larger internal dose and longer duration in the bloodstream from activities involving inhalation and dermal absorption compared to ingestion [36,37].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Exposure Assessment in Human Epidemiological Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [36] Ashley DL, Blount BC, Singer PC, et al. Changes in blood trihalomethane concentrations resulting from differences in water quality and water use activities. Arch Environ Occup Health. 2005;60(1):7–15. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] Leavens TL, Blount BC, DeMarini DM, et al. Disposition of bromodichloromethane in humans following oral and dermal exposure. Toxicol Sci. 2007;99(2):432–45. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The use of biomarkers of exposure is hampered by the short half-life of disinfection by-products in the body.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Exposure Assessment in Human Epidemiological Studies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evidence with respect to the association between DBP exposure and these cancer sites is mixed.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Colon and Rectal Cancer
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Disinfectants by definition are highly reactive, however, and any one of them will lead to the formation of DBPs [5].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Occurrence and Regulations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [5] Hua G, Reckhow DA. Comparison of disinfection byproduct formation from chlorine and alternative disinfectants. Water Res. 2007;41(8):1667–78. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Disinfection with chloramines leads to the formation of nitrogenated by-products such as nitrosamines [4].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Occurrence and Regulations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [4] Kristiana I, Tan J, Joll CA, et al. Formation of N-nitrosamines from chlorination and chloramination of molecular weight fractions of natural organic matter. Water Res. 2013;47(2):535–46. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“There have been sporadic studies of other cancer sites (pancreas, kidney, brain, breast, esophagus, and lung cancer, in addition to leukemia, melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer) [56], and the overall evidence is insufficient to determine whether an association exists.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Colon and Rectal Cancer
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [56] IARC. Trichloroethylene and other chlorinated agents. IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol. 106. Lyon, France: IARC Scientific publications; 2012.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The complex nature of the DBP mixture hampers the evaluation of mechanisms and the attribution of their effects to specific chemicals.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Experimental Evidence and Mechanisms of Action
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“An updated meta-and pooled analysis by Costet et al, (2011) showed that the risk of bladder cancer in men for TTHM exposure above 50 μg/L was comparable between studies conducted in Europe and North America.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Bladder Cancer
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Costet et al, (2011) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, results from different studies and among different countries have shown fairly consistent results.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Bladder Cancer
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Pharmacokinetics differs among exposure routes [37].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Exposure Assessment in Human Epidemiological Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] Leavens TL, Blount BC, DeMarini DM, et al. Disposition of bromodichloromethane in humans following oral and dermal exposure. Toxicol Sci. 2007;99(2):432–45. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“King (2001) analyzed six casecontrol and one cohort study, including incident cases, ascertainment of residential histories, water exposure, and confounders.The overall relative risk (RR) estimate for the highest exposure category, without specifying concentrations, was 1.5 (95 % CI,1.3-1.8).”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Bladder Cancer
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites King (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Given that THMs (as well as other DBPs) are volatile and skin permeable, the exposure pathways are numerous, and include ingestion of water, inhalation and skin absorption while showering, bathing, swimming in treated pools, and hand dish-washing [36].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Exposure Assessment in Human Epidemiological Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [36] Ashley DL, Blount BC, Singer PC, et al. Changes in blood trihalomethane concentrations resulting from differences in water quality and water use activities. Arch Environ Occup Health. 2005;60(1):7–15. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may be explained in part by the inherent difficulties in adequately assessing exposure levels in epidemiological studies or in comparing results from areas where water disinfection has generated hundreds of chemicals in varying proportions, where only a very small number of these interrelated pollutants are commonly assessed.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Congenital Malformations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The risk of stillbirth was recently evaluated in a meta-analysis of five studies, showing an overall increase of 9 % (2-17 %) for cases with high THM exposure [67].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fertility
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [67] Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Grellier J, Iszatt N, Martinez D, Rahman MB, Villanueva CM. Literature review of meta-analyses and pooled analyses of disinfection by-products in drinking water and cancer and reproductive health outcomes. In: Halden RU, editor. Contaminants of emerging concern in the environment: ecological and human health considerations. Washington DC: American Chemical Society; 2010. p. 483–96. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that in countries where chlorine dioxide is the main water disinfectant in use, an increase in the risk of urinary tract birth defects have been observed in association with chlorite or chlorate levels in drinking water [79].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Congenital Malformations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [79] Righi E, Bechtold P, Tortorici D, et al. Trihalomethanes, chlorite, chlorate in drinking water and risk of congenital anomalies: a population-based case–control study in Northern Italy. Environ Res. 2012;116:66–73. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“MacLehose et al. reported a decrease in fecundability (time to pregnancy) among women in the U.S. at sites with high levels of ingested THMs [64].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fertility
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites MacLehose et al.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [64] MacLehose RF, Savitz DA, Herring AH, et al. Drinking water disinfection by-products and time to pregnancy. Epidemiology. 2008;19(3):451–8. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Another explanation may be the absence of an effect that would be supported by the largely negative findings from experimental investigation of reproductive toxicity in rats following exposure to a “whole mixture” of DBPs representative of U.S. chlorinated drinking water [80], where previous experiments essentially focused on single DBPs or chemical classes of DBPs.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Congenital Malformations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [80] Narotsky MG, Best DS, Rogers EH, et al. Integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research: assessment of developmental toxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats exposed to concentrates of water disinfected by chlorination and ozonation/postchlorination. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2008;71(17):1216–21. source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“A large case-control study conducted in the UK reported no evidence of poor semen quality in association with total trihalomethanes (THMs), chloroform, or brominated THMs in public drinking water [61].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fertility
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [61] Iszatt N, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Bennett J, et al. Chlorination by-products in tap water and semen quality in England and Wales. Occup Environ Med. 2013;70(11):754–60. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, despite almost 40 years of research, the carcinogenicity of DBPs in human populations has yet to be determined, and study continues.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Colon and Rectal Cancer
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, there was no observed increase in the risk of small-for-gestational-age (SGA) neonates.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fetal Growth
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Two recent studies using urinary TCAA as a biomarker of exposure suggested an impact on fetal growth in the highest exposure category [74•, 76].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fetal Growth
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [74•, 76]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mechanistic research is underdeveloped”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“the available evidence suggests that, in general, the health benefits of swimming during childhood outweigh the potential respiratory health risks of chemical contamination [97].”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · hedged
“an increasing number of studies suggest that the benefits of swimming in pools outweigh the risks associated with DBP exposure.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [97] BSHC. (Belgium Superior Health Council). The issue of chlorine in swimming pools: risk attendant on baby swimming and reflections on the different methods used to disinfect swimming pools. Brussels: 2012. http://health.belgium.be/internet2Prd/groups/public/@public/@shc/documents/ie2divers/19076706.pdf .
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · hedged
In the paper
“A Dutch study in which a semi-quantitative exposure assessment was performed also found no correlation between asthma or respiratory symptoms and average trichloramine levels in swimming pools [95].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [95] Jacobs JH, Fuertes E, Krop EJ, et al. Swimming pool attendance and respiratory symptoms and allergies among Dutch children. Occup Environ Med. 2012;69(11):823–30. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although the causality of this association is uncertain”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
- Probably not a substantial claim. 10
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Studies have suggested a negative impact of DBP exposure on normal sperm morphology [58] and on sperm concentration [59], but not on motility percentage, after adjusting for confounders [60].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fertility
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Fenster L, Waller K, Windham G, et al. Trihalomethane levels in home tap water and semen quality. Epidemiology. 2003;14(6):650–8. source
- Disputedcites [59] Luben TJ, Olshan AF, Herring AH, et al. The healthy men study: an evaluation of exposure to disinfection by-products in tap water and sperm quality. Environ Health Perspect. 2007;115(8):1169–76. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Citation [60] is attached to the claim about motility percentage after adjustment, not to the morphology or concentration claims cited separately. The Methods (Semen collection and analyses; page unavailable) state that motility was not included in the statistical analysis because it was unreliable for shipped semen. This study therefore cannot support an adjusted finding of no effect on motility percentage. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [60] Xie SH, Li YF, Tan YF, et al. Urinary trichloroacetic acid levels and semen quality: a hospital-based cross-sectional study in Wuhan, China. Environ Res. 2011;111(2):295–300. source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Urine trichloroacetic acid has been proposed as a valid biomarker of ingested DBPs, as its halflife is longer than consecutive exposure events, reaching steady levels that correlate with levels ingested through drinking water [44].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Exposure Assessment in Human Epidemiological Studies
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [44] Bader EL, Hrudey SE, Froese KL. Urinary excretion half-life of trichloroacetic acid as a biomarker of exposure to chlorinated drinking water disinfection by-products. Occup Environ Med. 2004;61(8):715–6. source
The Discussion (page not provided) reports that urinary TCAA’s 2.1–6.3-day half-life exceeds the interval between daily drinking-water exposures. It says TCAA accumulates toward a quasi-steady state in plasma and that urinary excretion reflects average ingested exposure over several days, supporting its proposed use as a biomarker. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Exceptions, however, were noted in areas with high concentrations of THMs (≥80 μg/L) in tap water [71, 73•], in cases with high uptake via showering [74•], and in susceptible populations, such as newborns carrying a genetic variant of the CYP2E1 gene [70].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fetal Growth
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [71, 73•]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [74•]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites [70] Infante-Rivard C. Drinking water contaminants, gene polymorphisms, and fetal growth. Environ Health Perspect. 2004;112(11):1213–6. source
The citation to this paper is attached specifically to the exception involving newborns with a CYP2E1 variant, not to the separate claims about ≥80 μg/L or showering. The Results report a different IUGR risk with THM exposure for newborn carriers versus noncarriers, and the Discussion describes substantial risk among genetically susceptible newborns while noting that the findings need confirmation. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Meta-analyses of available studies (n=15) on the relationship between DBP exposure and various birth defects have reflected an overall 17 % increase (334 %) in all congenital anomalies and, more specifically, an increased risk of ventricular septal defect, based on five and three studies, respectively.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Congenital Malformations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [77] Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Martinez D, Grellier J, et al. Chlorination disinfection by-products in drinking water and congenital anomalies: review and meta-analyses. Environ Health Perspect. 2009;117(10):1486–93. source
The Results list 15 studies evaluated in the review. The Discussion reports a 17% excess risk for all congenital anomalies (95% CI, 3–34) and an increased risk of ventricular septal defects based on three studies. It does not specify the five-study count for the all-anomalies estimate in the passages retrieved. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In China, a cross-sectional study that measured urine TCAA in approximately 2,000 men visiting a reproduction center showed a negative correlation between markers of sperm quality and urine TCAA levels, but no dose-response association was observed [62].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fertility
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [62] Zeng Q, Wang YX, Xie SH, et al. Drinking-water disinfection by-products and semen quality: a cross-sectional study in China. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122(7):741–6. source
The Methods describe a cross-sectional study of men visiting a reproductive center in China and report 2,009 men in the final analysis. The Results and Discussion associate urinary TCAA above the lowest quartile with several measures of lower semen quality, while explicitly stating that the associations did not increase monotonically across exposure quartiles. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelationaln = 2,000- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Epidemiological studies have described a higher prevalence of certain respiratory symptoms among pool workers, but have reported no chronic effects [84].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Swimming Pools and Respiratory Health
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [84] Villanueva CM, Font-Ribera L. Health impact of disinfection by-products in swimming pools. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 2012;48(4):387–96. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Occupational exposure section reports a higher prevalence of nasal symptoms and other respiratory symptoms among pool workers. Two studies found no increase in bronchial hyperreactivity, but the section also reports a higher prevalence of asthma in one study and three cases of occupational asthma. Thus, the categorical claim that studies reported no chronic effects is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is also a need to evaluate occurrence levels in low-and middle-income countries, where evidence is scarce.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The evidence implicating DBP exposure during pregnancy does not show a consistent association with pregnancy outcomes, with the exception of a slight correlation with fetal growth-related outcomes.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The presence of chemical compounds formed as disinfection by-products (DBPs) is widespread in developed countries, and virtually whole populations are exposed to these chemicals through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal absorption from drinking water and swimming pools.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Early studies suggested a positive association, while subsequent larger studies found no correlations or showed a protective association.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Populations highly exposed to swimming pools such as pool workers and professional swimmers show a higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms and asthma, respectively, although the direction of the association, and thus causality, is not clear among professional swimmers.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“with more than 600 DBPs that have been identified [1]”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Occurrence and Regulations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] Richardson SD, Plewa MJ, Wagner ED, et al. Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutat Res. 2007;636(1–3):178–242. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Epidemiological evidence has shown a consistent association between long-term exposure to trihalomethanes and the risk of bladder cancer, although the causal nature of the association is not conclusive.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Ozone is used in combination with chlorine-based disinfectants to produce a lower volume of THMs, HAAs, and chlorine-based DBPs, but results in the production of aldehydes, ketones, keto aldehydes, carboxylic acids, keto acids, hydroxy acids, alcohols, and esters, and can also form bromate when the raw water contains bromide [3].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Occurrence and Regulations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [3] von Gunten U. Ozonation of drinking water: part II. Disinfection and by-product formation in presence of bromide, iodide or chlorine. Water Res. 2003;37(7):1469–87. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Rahman et al. (2010) integrated three additional case-control studies with poorer designs, did not reject heterogeneity, and were able to estimate a combined RR for highest exposure of 1.3 (95 % CI, 1.1-1.6)[55].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Colon and Rectal Cancer
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Trihalomethanes have been used in epidemiological studies as surrogates of total DBP content, although correlations among specific DBPs are variable [35].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Exposure Assessment in Human Epidemiological Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Villanueva CM, Castano-Vinyals G, Moreno V, et al. Concentrations and correlations of disinfection by-products in municipal drinking water from an exposure assessment perspective. Environ Res. 2012;114:1–11. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Experimental evidence provided by animal studies has shown fetotoxic effects, retarded fetal development, spermatotoxicity, delayed sexual maturation, changes in reproductive organs/placenta, and skeletal effects [10].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Experimental Evidence and Mechanisms of Action
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Tardiff RG, Carson ML, Ginevan ME. Updated weight of evidence for an association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and exposure to disinfection by-products. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2006;45(2):185–205. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Chlorine dioxide is widely used in Italy, leading to lower levels of THMs but higher levels of chlorite and chlorate [2].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Occurrence and Regulations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [2] Fantuzzi G, Aggazzotti G, Righi E, et al. Exposure to organic halogen compounds in drinking water of 9 Italian regions: exposure to chlorites, chlorates, trihalomethanes, trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene. Ann Ig. 2007;19(4):345–54.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, the validity of this method is limited, given that trichloroacetic acid is a metabolite of other substances, and only the ingestion pathway is covered (haloacetic acids are not volatile or skin-permeable) [45].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Exposure Assessment in Human Epidemiological Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [45] Savitz DA. Invited commentary: biomarkers of exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products–are we ready yet? Am J Epidemiol. 2012;175(4):276–8. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The levels of precursors such as natural organic matter (e.g., humic and fulvic acids) are determinants of the DBP yield, while bromide and iodide concentrations determine the formation of brominated and iodinated DBP species [6,7].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Occurrence and Regulations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [6] Kampioti AA, Stephanou EG. The impact of bromide on the formation of neutral and acidic disinfection by-products (DBPs) in Mediterranean chlorinated drinking water. Water Res. 2002;36(10):2596–606. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [7] Richardson SD, Fasano F, Ellington JJ, et al. Occurrence and mammalian cell toxicity of iodinated disinfection byproducts in drinking water. Environ Sci Technol. 2008;42(22):8330–8. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Several disinfection by-products have been shown to be genotoxic in in vitro assays and carcinogenic in animal experiments [1].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Experimental Evidence and Mechanisms of Action
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] Richardson SD, Plewa MJ, Wagner ED, et al. Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutat Res. 2007;636(1–3):178–242. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, the consistency in epidemiological findings and the observed doseresponse relationship, at least for men, cannot be dismissed.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Bladder Cancer
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It reacts with organic matter from swimmers, leading to the formation of DBPs such as nitrosamines [81] or chloramines, apart from trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, and other DBPs that are also found in drinking water.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Swimming Pools and Respiratory Health
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [81] Walse SS, Mitch WA. Nitrosamine carcinogens also swim in chlorinated pools. Environ Sci Technol. 2008;42(4):1032–7. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Several studies have shown a higher prevalence of asthma among swimmers compared to other athletes [85], but the direction of the association is not clear, given that swimming is a recommended sport for asthmatics [85,86].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Swimming Pools and Respiratory Health
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [85] Goodman M, Hays S. Asthma and swimming: a meta-analysis. J Asthma. 2008;45(8):639–47. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [86] Uyan ZS, Carraro S, Piacentini G, et al. Swimming pool, respiratory health, and childhood asthma: should we change our beliefs? Pediatr Pulmonol. 2009;44(1):31–7. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A prospective study conducted in California suggested an increased risk of spontaneous abortion among women who consumed five or more glasses of cold tap water per day containing ≥75 μg/liter of total THMs, with a higher risk when bromodichloromethane was considered [65].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Fertility
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [65] Waller K, Swan SH, DeLorenze G, et al. Trihalomethanes in drinking water and spontaneous abortion. Epidemiology. 1998;9(2):134–40. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, despite a large body of research, there is no clear evidence linking exposure to DBPs and reproductive outcomes, with the exception of a slight association with fetal growth-related outcomes and sporadic associations with some categories of congenital anomalies.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Congenital Malformations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Trichloramine, a volatile compound producing a penetrating odor and causing skin irritation [82], is present in the air of indoor swimming pools.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Swimming Pools and Respiratory Health
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [82] Weaver WA, Li J, Wen Y, et al. Volatile disinfection by-product analysis from chlorinated indoor swimming pools. Water Res. 2009;43(13):3308–18. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The available body of evidence has identified some sites, particularly the bladder, as potential targets, but lingering issues prevent definitive conclusions of causality.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Colon and Rectal Cancer
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“laboratory models may not necessarily contribute to an understanding of acute or chronic effects in humans, who are generally exposed at very low doses.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Future Directions
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Indeed, swimming was associated with increased lung function and a lower prevalence of asthma symptoms, especially among children with pre-existing respiratory conditions [94•].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [94•]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The only prospective longitudinal study was performed among 5,738 British child swimmers, which found no increased risk of asthma or any respiratory or allergy symptoms at around 10 years of age [94•].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [94•]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“current technologies in developed countries allow water treatment that minimizes the formation of DBPs while maintaining microbial safety.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Studies showing null associations were population-based and had larger sample sizes [91-93, 94•, 95].”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Children
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [91-93, 94•, 95]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“exposure assessment is a key challenge in epidemiological studies, particularly for long-latency diseases such as cancer.”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“may be incorporated through multiple routes (ingestion, inhalation, skin absorption)”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Disinfection by-products are undesired consequences of disinfection”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Trihalomethanes have been traditionally used as markers of DBP mixtures”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“DBPs constitute complex mixtures”
§ WATER AND HEALTH (T WADE, SECTION EDITOR) Overview of Disinfection By-products and Associated Health Effects > Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Several epidemiological studies have investigated health effects of long-term exposure to residential DBPs and all identified an association with increased risk of bladder cancer.”
From Effects of exposure to water disinfection by-products in a swimming pool: A metabolome-wide association study (2018) · cites this paper as Villanueva et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“THMs' carcinogenic effects have been confirmed by numerous studies employing laboratory animals, which show that THMs in the drinking water are associated with colorectal tumors, BC, and bladder tumors as a result of nongenetic toxicity [34].”
From Overview of emerging contaminants and associated human health effects (2015) · cites this paper as [34]
Citations
Cites
IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans
Zuckerman, A. J. (1995) · Journal of Clinical Pathology · doi:10.1136/jcp.48.7.691-a · Cited by 8,766
Kay, H. (1980) · Journal of Clinical Pathology · doi:10.1136/jcp.33.6.608-c · Cited by 3,813
RICHARDSON, S., PLEWA, M., WAGNER, E., SCHOENY, R., & DEMARINI, D. (2007) · Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research · doi:10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001 · Cited by 3,317
Bleyl, D. W. R. (1989) · Food / Nahrung · doi:10.1002/food.19890330516 · Cited by 2,315
International programme on chemical safety
Haines, J. A. (1996) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)65029-5 · Cited by 1,869
FORMATION OF HALOFORMS DURING CHLORINATION OF NATURAL WATERS
Rook, J. J. (1974) · Cited by 1,600
von Gunten, U. (2003) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/s0043-1354(02)00458-x · Cited by 1,345
Comparison of disinfection byproduct formation from chlorine and alternative disinfectants
Hua, G., & Reckhow, D. A. (2007) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2007.01.032 · Cited by 737
Occurrence and Mammalian Cell Toxicity of Iodinated Disinfection Byproducts in Drinking Water
Richardson, S. D., Fasano, F., Ellington, J. J., Crumley, F. G., Buettner, K. M., Evans, J. J., Blount, B. C., Silva, L. K., Waite, T. J., Luther, G. W., et al. (2008) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es801169k · Cited by 655
Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Toledano, M. B., Eaton, N. E., Fawell, J., & Elliott, P. (2000) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.57.2.73 · Cited by 591
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- King W. Epidemiological studies of disinfection by-products and cancer risk. In: Craun GF, Hauchman FS, Robinson DE, editors. Microbiological pathogens and disinfection by-products in drinking water: health effects and management of risks. Washington, DC: ILSI Press; 2001. p. 243–54.
- Hrudey SE. Epidemiological inference and evidence on DBPs and human health. In: Hrudey SE, Charrois JW, editors. Disinfection by-products and human health. London: IWA Publishing; 2012. p. 213–82.
- Bull R. Toxicological evaluation of experimental data that informs the magnitude of cancer risk from DBPs. In: Hrudey SE, Charrois JW, editors. Disinfection by-products and human health. London: IWA Publishing; 2012. p. 179–212.
- IARC. Trichloroethylene and other chlorinated agents. IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol. 106. Lyon, France: IARC Scientific publications; 2012.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Overview of emerging contaminants and associated human health effects
Lei, M., Zhang, L., Lei, J., Zong, L., Li, J., Wu, Z., & Wang, Z. (2015) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2015/404796 · Cited by 231
Kali, S., Khan, M., Ghaffar, M. S., Rasheed, S., Waseem, A., Iqbal, M. M., Niazi, M. B. K., & Zafar, M. I. (2021) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116950 · Cited by 221
Gilca, A. F., Teodosiu, C., Fiore, S., & Mustereț, C. P. (2020) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127476 · Cited by 212
Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water and Bladder Cancer Burden in the European Union
Evlampidou, I., Font-Ribera, L., Rojas-Rueda, D., Gracia-Lavedan, E., Costet, N., Pearce, N., Vineis, P., Jaakkola, J. J. K., Delloye, F., Makris, K. C., et al. (2020) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp4495 · Cited by 178
Self-citationUS drinking water quality: exposure risk profiles for seven legacy and emerging contaminants
Levin, R., Villanueva, C. M., Beene, D., Cradock, A. L. I., Donat‐Vargas, C., Lewis, J. L., Martínez-Morata, I., Minovi, D., Nigra, A. E., Olson, E. D., et al. (2023) · Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1038/s41370-023-00597-z · Cited by 210
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Villanueva, C. M., Cordier, S., Font-Ribera, L., Salas, L. A., & Levallois, P.
- Affiliations
- Barcelona Biomedical Research Park (ES)
- Inserm (FR)
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (ES)
- Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Villanueva, Cristina M.
- Venue
- Current Environmental Health Reports
- Published
- 2015-01-22
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 107-115
- ISSN
- 2196-5412 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1988179669
- Cited by
- 291
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 9.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Current Environmental Health Reports (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Carcinogens and Genotoxicity Assessment
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- disinfection by-products, trihalomethanes, drinking water disinfection, swimming pool water, bladder cancer, reproductive health, fetal growth, asthma, respiratory symptoms, congenital malformations, occupational exposure, professional swimmers, health effects
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Asthma, Disinfectants, Environmental Exposure, Female, Humans, Male, Neoplasms, Public Health, Respiratory Tract Diseases, Swimming Pools, Trihalomethanes, Drinking Water
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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