Construct validity and transpositional research: Toward an empirical study of psychoanalytic concepts

Scovel argued that the loss of pronunciation ability is related to the completion of speech-function lateralization at about age thirteen.

“Scovel 34 has made a case for the relationship of loss of pronunciation ability to the completion of lateralization of speech function which is achieved at approximately age 13.”

• cites [34] Scovel, 1969, Foreign accent, language acquisition, and cerebral dominance, Language Learning sourceSupported

A 1967 pilot study found a significant rank-order correlation of about 0.60 between a micro-momentary expressions measure of empathy and French pronunciation proficiency.

“A significant relation (rank order correlation of tO.60) was found between this measure and pronunciation proficiency.”

The paper defines empathy as a comprehending process in which temporary fusion of self-object boundaries permits immediate emotional apprehension of another's affective experience, which cognitive functions then use to understand the other.

“Empathy is a process of comprehending in which a temporary fusion of self-object boundaries, as in the earliest pattern of object relation, permits an immediate emotional apprehension of the affective experience of another, this sensing being used by the cognitive functions to gain understanding of the other.lo”

Once ego development is complete, pronunciation flexibility is sharply restricted, making authentic pronunciation in a new language nearly impossible for adults.

“Once ego development is concluded, however, that flexibility will be sharply restricted forever.It will be well-nigh impossible for an adult to learn any new language with authentic pronunciation.”

A second study reported that empathy and projective measures plus verbal intelligence explained over half the variance in pronunciation, with a multiple correlation of +0.72.

“The results obtained in this study indicated that the MME and TAT scores combined with a measure of verbal intelligence accounted for more than half of the variance in language (pronunciation) performance, as indicated by a multiple correlation of R = +0.72.”

The empirical study of empathy is limited by imprecise definitions and operationalizations with insufficient construct validity, but transpositional research can raise construct validity by moving the operationalized behavior outside the clinical setting.

“The empirical study of the construct empathy suffers from two major weaknesses: the definitional formulations offered are not specific enough, and the operationalization of such definitions does not allow for a sufficiently high level of construct validity.However, by adopting the new transpositional research strategy, one can expect to achieve a much higher level of construct validity by placing the operationalized behavior outside the clinical realm.I2”

• cites I2Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Because pronunciation is the language behavior most resistant to change, it is critical to identity, and individual differences in native-like pronunciation should reflect differences in psychic flexibility or empathic capacity.

“Since pronunciation appears to be the feature of language behavior most resistant to change it can be assumed also to be the most critical to the individual's identity.Thus, individual differences in the ability to approximate native-like pronunciation should reflect individual differences in the flexibility of psychic processes, or more specifically, in the empathic capacity.”

The paper claims that reducing empathy from a high construct to a low construct by linking it to pronunciation behavior is a major methodological gain.

“In terms of methodological considerations alone, the successful reduction of a high construct to the level of a low construct is a major gain in itself.”

Pronunciation is the core of the language ego, supported by the observation that it remains intact in speech dysfunctions that impair vocabulary, syntax, and grammar.

“The proposition that pronunciation is indeed the very core of the language ego finds dramatic support in the observation that contrary to vocabulary, syntax, and grammar, which are all subject to serious impairment in the different speech dysfunctions, pronunciation seems to be immune to such loss.”

A large-scale replication with Defense Language Institute subjects confirmed the earlier finding, with a multiple correlation of +0.69 accounting for 49% of the variance.

“The results of this large-scale replication confirmed the findings of the earlier study.A multiple correlation of R = to.69was found between pronunciation performance and the combined measures accounting for 49% of the variance.”

Adult differences in approximating native-like pronunciation and in language-ego permeability are genetically determined, with object-relations capacity and empathy as major determinants.

“Individual variations among adults in the degree of approximation of nativelike authenticity, in levels of permeability of the language ego are genetically determined.Object-relations capacity, as in empathy, will be a major determinant.”

Very young infants modify their behavior, including vocalization, in response to interpersonal stimulation, and maternal smiling, body contact, and voice can reinforce infant behavior.

“Very young infants have been shown to be highly responsive in modifying their behavior, including vocalization, in reaction to changes in interpersonal stimulation.Such stimulus patterns as smiling, b$y contact, and the voice of the mother can act as reinforcers in shaping infant behavior.The affective interaction with the mother is a kind of reinforcement matrix within which the child learns the sounds of his language.29”

• cites [29] Mowrer, 1960Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Intonation contours appear as early as five months of age and are the first discernible feature of natural language.

“We know, for example, that intonation contours are apparent as early as 5 months of age, and this is in fact the first discernable feature of natural language.22”

• cites [22] Lenneberg, 1967 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Speech begins with word learning at about eleven to twelve months, and syntax acquisition appears to continue until at least age five.

“At approximately 1 l-l 2 months of age actual speech begins with the learning of words, and it appears that syntax acquisition continues until the child is at least 5 $.27”

• cites [27] McNeill, 1970, The development of languageNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Schafer defined generative empathy as an inner experience of sharing and comprehending another person's momentary psychological state, distinct from narcissistic appropriation or schizophrenic confusion.

“Schafer33 writes, "Generative empathy may be defined as the inner experience at sharing in and comprehending the momentary psychological state of another person. . . .This is unlike the actor's narcissistic appropriation of the characteristics of others; it is also unlike the schizophrenic's confusion as to where he leaves off and the other person begins."”

• cites [33] Schafer, 1959, Generative empathy in the treatment situation, Psychiat. Quart. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Second-language pronunciation skills are drastically reduced or irrevocably lost at puberty.

“The gap between pronunciation ability and other language skills is dramatically underlined by the general observation that at puberty, second language pronunciation skills are drastically reduced if not irrevocably lost.2122”

• cites [2122]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The paper proposes transpositional research: find another behavioral realm where clinically observed phenomena can be assumed to exist but where variables and populations can be manipulated for rigorous empirical study.

“Instead of that we try to identify another realm of behavior, where the phenomena, fust observed in the clinical situation, can be assumed also to exist.That other realm of behavior however, in contradistinction to the original clinical circumstance, is of such a nature that it lends itself readily to manipulation of variables and populations, to rigorous empirical research.I call this strategy franspositional research.”

Freud described empathy as the mechanism that allows a person to adopt any attitude toward another person's mental life.

“Freud referred to empathy as being ". . . the mechanism by means of which we are enabled to take up any attitude at all toward another mental life."8”

• cites [8] Freud, 1949Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The paper uses a quotation from Loewenstein to show that psychoanalytic propositions can be framed in constructs that lack unequivocal denotative meaning.

“And as the obsessional neurotic reverses against himself the unconscious aggression originally directed against his father, so the Jewish people turn against themselves the hostility they originally experienced toward God and toward their conquerors."24”

• cites [24] Loewenstein, 1951Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sullivan linked empathy to the infant's direct and immediate apprehension of the mother's mood.

“This view is clearly advanced by Sullivan 36 in his discussion of empathy; he relates this process to the direct and immediate apprehension by the infant of the mood of the mother.”

• cites [36] Sullivan, 1947Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The paper introduces the construct language ego, conceived as a maturational concept similar to body ego.

“At the risk of committing the original sin of producing one more vaguely defined concept, I wish to introduce a new construct "language ego."In a manner similar to the concept of body ego, language ego too, is conceived as a maturational concept.”

A low construct is a postulated psychic process whose existence cannot be verified through overt behavior, but which becomes plausible once illustrated because predicted events can be derived from it.

“A low construct is defined as a postulated psychic phenomenon or process whose existence is not verifiable on the basis of observable overt behavior, but once illustrated it becomes plausible because predicted events can readily be derived from it, e.g., the process of inference or logical (Aristotelian) deduction/induction.”

A high construct is a postulated psychic process that cannot be verified through overt behavior and cannot become plausible through illustration because predicted events cannot readily be derived from it.

“A high construct is defined as a postulated psychic phenomenon or process, whose existence is not verifiable on the basis of observable overt behavior, nor can it become plausible through illustration, because predicted events cannot readily be derived from it; e.g., the process of empathy or the process of intuition.”

Kalin, McClelland, and Kahn questioned the idea that people drink in order to think, talk, or act inefficiently.

“Yet, as Kalin, McClelland, and Kahn l9 stated: ". . . it is hard to believe that people drink in order to think, talk, or act in an uncoordinated, inefficient way."”

• cites [19] Kalin, 1965, The effects of male social drinking on fantasy, J. Personality soc. psychol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source