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Interactions between protected areas and their surroundings in human-dominated tropical landscapes
Abstract
Protected areas (PAs) often depend on landscapes surrounding them to maintain flows of organisms, water, nutrients, and energy. Park managers have little authority over the surrounding landscape although land use change and infrastructure development can have major impacts on the integrity of a PA. The need for scientifically-based regional-scale land use planning around protected areas is acute in human-dominated landscapes to balance conservation goals with livelihood needs for fuelwood, fodder, and other ecosystem services. As a first step, we propose the designation of a “zone of interaction” (ZOI) around PAs that encompasses hydrologic, ecological, and socioeconomic interactions between a PA and the surrounding landscape. We illustrate the concept by delineating the ZOI in three Indian PAs - Kanha, Ranthambore, and Nagarahole - using remote sensing, population census, and field data. The ZOI in Ranthambore is three times the size of the park and is largely defined by the socioeconomic interactions with surrounding villages. Ranthambore is located in headwaters and wildlife corridors are largely severed. In Nagarahole, the ZOI is more than seven times larger than the park and includes upstream watershed and elephant corridors. Kanha's ZOI is approximately four times larger than the park and is mostly defined by contiguous surrounding forest. The three examples highlight the differing extents of ZOIs when applying equivalent criteria, even though all are located in densely-populated landscapes. Quantitative understanding of which activities (e.g. collection of forest products, grazing, road construction, tourism development) and which locations within the ZOI are most crucial to conservation goals will enable improved land use planning around PAs in human-dominated landscapes.
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“However, most other PAs across Africa represent now only fragments of formerly much larger ecosystems ( 44 ).”
From Cross-boundary human impacts compromise the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
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“…forest-patch area ? dist road 0.28 903,327.4 215,167.9 10 *dist ? slope ? forest-patch area 0.26 949,664.1 261,504.6 11 *dist ? slope ? status 0.26 967,353.6 279,194.1 12 *dist ? slope ? dist road 0.24 1,013,967 325,807.5 13 *dist ? forest-patch area ? dist road 0.23 1,027,519 339,359.5 14 *dist…”
BackgroundInfluentialFood security and livelihoods of post-resettlement households around Kanha National Park
Neelakantan, A., DeFries, R., & Fanzo, J. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243825 · Cited by 7
“Most importantly, India is a megadiverse and high human density country which mirrors the socio-economic and conservation realities faced by many nations with intense competition for natural resources [38, 39].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDoes leakage exist in China’s typical protected areas? Evidence from 13 national nature reserves
Li, J., Liu, S., Hong, T., You, W., & Hu, X. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-16068-7 · Cited by 7
“It is undoubted that the extent of leakage zones is highly spatial heterogeneity across different observed reserves (Defries et al. 2010), we selected 9 buffer zones with a standard fixed ring width of 1 km here in light of studies by Dewi et al.”
MethodFeng, Z., Wu, J., Gao, Y., & Peng, J. (2014) · Journal of Urban Planning and Development · doi:10.1061/(asce)up.1943-5444.0000259 · Cited by 7
Buffer Zone Delineation at Conservation Reserve
Ahmad, C. B., Abdullah, J., & Jaafar, J. (2016) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.227 · Cited by 7
Ahmad, A., & Gopi, G. V. (2025) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.71247 · Cited by 6
“This aligns with previous studies demonstrating the ecological significance of undisturbed forests in maintaining habitat connectivity, reducing fragmentation effects, and ensuring resource availability for wildlife (DeFries et al. 2010; Srivastava and Tyagi 2016).”
Govind, S. K., & Jayson, E. A. (2021) · Animal Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.32800/abc.2021.44.0139 · Cited by 6
“Studies indicate that speedy disbursement of ex–gratia is the significant factor in increasing co–existence between humans and wildlife (Madden, 2004; DeFries et al., 2010).”
BackgroundEffects of Surrounding Landscape Context on Threatened Wetland Bird Diversity at the Global Scale
Li, L., Liu, Y., Wang, H., Zhu, Y., Li, Y., Xu, C., & Teng, S. N. (2024) · Diversity · doi:10.3390/d16120738 · Cited by 6
Consumo di suolo e analisi dei cambiamenti del paesaggio nei Parchi nazionali d'Italia
Marchetti, M. A., Ottaviano, M., Pazzagli, R., & Sallustio, L. (2013) · TERRITORIO · doi:10.3280/tr2013-066021 · Cited by 6
Nerfa, L., & Rhemtulla, J. M. (2019) · Forests Trees and Livelihoods · doi:10.1080/14728028.2019.1621777 · Cited by 6
“Several remote sensing studies have also shown that fuelwood extraction is an important driver of forest cover and woody biomass loss (e.g., DeFries et al. 2010; Ryan et al. 2012).”
BackgroundDuckworth, G. D., & Altwegg, R. (2021) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.10719 · Cited by 8
Deka, J. R., Lal, U., & Sarma, P. K. (2025) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-025-14302-0 · Cited by 5
“Our analysis suggests that forest dependency, rather than proximity alone, plays a key role in shaping interaction patterns (DeFries et al., 2010).”
Gökmen, E. Y., & Gülersoy, N. Z. (2018) · Journal of Landscape Ecology · doi:10.2478/jlecol-2018-0002 · Cited by 5
“, 2013), and the ability to understand the interactions between local communities and their environments (DeFries et al., 2010) place it in a position of utmost significance on the sustainable development agenda (Bürgi et al.”
BackgroundZou, C., Ye, X., & Yang, S. (2018) · IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS) · doi:10.1109/igarss.2018.8517533 · Cited by 5
“Combination of those portions was conducive to construction of comprehensive ecological security patterns [12].”
BackgroundMalá, J., Hrich, K., Vaculíková, K., & Lejska, S. (2022) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-022-09759-2 · Cited by 5
“The size of a ZOI is decided individually on a case-by-case basis (DeFries et al., 2010).”
BackgroundGood, quarrelsome, bad: animal agency and human-elephant interactions in the Western Ghats, India
Dundi, D. B., Praet, I., & Marvin, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Conservation Science · doi:10.3389/fcosc.2023.1142333 · Cited by 5
“Both ther Kodagu and Nagarahole Tiger Reserve are located in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, the Western Ghats.”
BackgroundInfluentialÖzdeş, M. (2023) · Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.33688/aucbd.1198890 · Cited by 5
Gutiérrez‐Arellano, C., & Mulligan, M. P. (2020) · Ecosystem Services · doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2020.101137 · Cited by 7
Vidal-Pastrana, C. C., Ávila, D. M., & Barrera, V. C. S. (2021) · Ecological Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106193 · Cited by 6
Shabnam, F. P., Smija, M. K., Rajeevan, S., Prasadan, P. K., & Sudhikumar, A. V. (2021) · European Journal of Ecology · doi:10.17161/eurojecol.v7i1.14612 · Cited by 5
“On the whole, agricultural land-use changes have affected the forest ecosystems of Wayanad in two major ways: first, a conspicuous shrinkage of the forest cover and the second, the loss of structural integrity of the remaining forests (De Fries et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2010).”
BackgroundZeng, Y., Wang, L., & Zhong, L. (2025) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.146654 · Cited by 4
Enhanced forest carbon gains from stronger protection in China’s protected areas
Fu, Y., Li, W., Niu, Z., Chen, F., Zhang, B., Qiao, H., Wang, L., & Svenning, J.-C. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-69505-x · Cited by 6
“…human activity intensify, global PAs — including those in China — are increasingly threatened by various climatic and anthropogenic stressors 14,38,39 , such as shifting climate zones, changing species ranges, altered regeneration patterns, and heightened vulnerability to disturbances like wild fi…”
Chernenkova, T. V., Kotlov, I. P., Belyaeva, N. G., Суслова, Е. Г., & Lebedeva, N. (2023) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs15010276 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- DeFries, R., Karanth, K. K., & Pareeth, S.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- Centre For Wildlife Studies (IN)
- Corresponding author
- DeFries, Ruth
- Venue
- Biological Conservation
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-12
- Volume
- 143
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 2870-2880
- ISSN
- 0006-3207 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2135328819
- Cited by
- 299
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 14.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Biological Conservation (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Keywords
- protected areas, anthropogenic landscapes, land use planning, ecosystem services, ecological corridors, watershed connectivity, human-wildlife interactions, conservation and livelihoods, Kanha National Park, road construction impacts, tourism development
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