The DOI matches its Crossref record; 50 of the 50 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Single-case experimental designs. Evaluating interventions in research and clinical practice
Abstract
Single-case designs refer to a methodological approach that can be used to investigate the effectiveness of treatment with the individual client. The designs permit scientifically valid inferences to be drawn about the effects of treatment and hence offer advantages over alternative strategies such as the uncontrolled case study or open study that are used with the individual case. The present article discusses the key features of the methodology, illustrates specific designs and how inferences are drawn, and discusses critical issues (feasibility, generality of results, ethical issues) in the use of the designs. Essential features of the design, including ongoing assessment and drawing on the underlying thinking and logic of the designs can improve the clinical care for individual clients, even when the rigors of experimentation are not feasible or desirable. Lamentably, single-case methods are rarely trained among researchers or practitioners in psychology or related mental health professions. The designs could play a special role by improving individual care and therapeutic change, apart from the strength of the methodology as a purely research tool.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Single-subject methods have “the advantage of offering a carefully controlled investigation on a small scale” that can then build generalisable results through systematic replication (Kazdin, 2019).”
From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for women living with Vulvodynia: A single-case experimental design study of a treatment delivered online (2022) · cites this paper as Kazdin, 2019
Citations
Cites
The environment and disease: association or causation?
Hill, A. B. (2015) · Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine · doi:10.1177/0141076814562718 · Cited by 7,804
The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?
Hill, A. B. (1965) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine · doi:10.1177/003591576505800503 · Cited by 6,974
“Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct”
Ford, G. G. (2000) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781482274400-4 · Cited by 4,258
Wolf, M. M. (1978) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1901/jaba.1978.11-203 · Cited by 3,176
Single-Case Research Designs: Methods for Clinical and Applied Settings
Kazdin, A. E. (1982) · Cited by 2,852
Self-citationSingle-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings
Hayes, S. C. (1983) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0005-7916(83)90018-6 · Cited by 2,677
Research design in clinical psychology
Kazdin, A. E. (1952) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(195201)8:1 · Cited by 2,153
Self-citationTactics of Scientific Research
Sidman, M. (1960) · Cited by 1,638
Assessing the Clinical or Applied Importance of Behavior Change through Social Validation
Kazdin, A. E. (1977) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/014544557714001 · Cited by 1,117
Self-citationBehavior modification in applied settings
Kazdin, A. E. (1975) · Cited by 1,086
Self-citationBehavior modification in applied settings
Wolff, R. P. (1994) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0005-7916(94)90069-8 · Cited by 1,034
Arbitrary metrics in psychology
Blanton, H., & Jaccard, J. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.1.27 · Cited by 681
Shimokawa, K., Lambert, M. J., & Smart, D. W. (2010) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019247 · Cited by 657
Is it time for clinicians to routinely track patient outcome? A meta-analysis
Lambert, M. J., Whipple, J. L., Hawkins, E. J., Vermeersch, D. A., Nielsen, S. L., & Smart, D. W. (2003) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg025 · Cited by 608
Patient-focused research: Using patient outcome data to enhance treatment effects.
Lambert, M. J., Hansen, N. B., & Finch, A. E. (2001) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.69.2.159 · Cited by 602
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.
(1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.47.12.1597 · Cited by 522
Implementing routine outcome monitoring in clinical practice: Benefits, challenges, and solutions
Boswell, J. F., Kraus, D. R., Miller, S. D., & Lambert, M. J. (2015) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2013.817696 · Cited by 494
Lambert, M. J., & Shimokawa, K. (2011) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0022238 · Cited by 464
Bickman, L., Kelley, S. D., Breda, C., de Andrade, A. R., & Riemer, M. (2011) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.002052011 · Cited by 421
Single Subject Research: Strategies for Evaluating Change
Kratochwill, T. R. (1978) · Cited by 410
Research design in clinical psychology
Levy, P. (1982) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(82)90162-0 · Cited by 341
The Analysis and Presentation of Graphic Data
Parsonson, B. S., & Baer, D. M. (1978) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-425850-1.50009-0 · Cited by 306
Meta-analysis of psychological assessment as a therapeutic intervention
Poston, J. M., & Hanson, W. E. (2010) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0018679 · Cited by 276
History of behavior modification : experimental foundations of contemporary research
Kazdin, A. E. (1978) · Andalas University Repository (Andalas University) · Cited by 251
Self-citationSingle case experimental design and empirical clinical practice.
Hayes, S. C. (1981) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.49.2.193 · Cited by 241
The therapeutic effects of providing patient progress information to therapists and patients
Hawkins, E. J., Lambert, M. J., Vermeersch, D. A., Slade, K. L., & Tuttle, K. C. (2004) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1093/ptr/kph027 · Cited by 230
Tate, R. L., Perdices, M., Rosenkoetter, U., McDonald, S., Togher, L., Shadish, W., Horner, R., Kratochwill, T., Barlow, D. H., Kazdin, A., et al. (2016) · Archives of Scientific Psychology · doi:10.1037/arc0000027 · Cited by 219
Self-citationSingle case experimental design and empirical clinical practice.
Hayes, S. C. (1981) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.49.2.193 · Cited by 209
Arbitrary metrics: Implications for identifying evidence-based treatments.
Kazdin, A. E. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.1.42 · Cited by 198
Self-citationThe state of the science in the meta-analysis of single-case experimental designs
Shadish, W. R., Rindskopf, D. M., & Hedges, L. V. (2008) · Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention · doi:10.1080/17489530802581603 · Cited by 180
Is It Time for Clinicians to Routinely Track Patient Outcome? A Meta-Analysis
Lambert, M. J. (2003) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy/bpg025 · Cited by 150
Simon, W., Lambert, M. J., Harris, M. W., Busath, G., & Vazquez, A. (2012) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2012.698918 · Cited by 137
Patient-focused and feedback research in psychotherapy: Where are we and where do we want to go?
Lutz, W., de Jong, K., & Rubel, J. A. (2015) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2015.1079661 · Cited by 127
IMMEDIATE AND LONG-TERM SYMPTOMATIC COURSE OF PSYCHIATRIC OUTPATIENTS
Frank, J. D., Nash, E. H., STONE, A. R., & Imber, S. D. (1963) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.120.5.429 · Cited by 118
Autocorrelation estimation and inference with small samples.
Huitema, B. E., & McKean, J. W. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.2.291 · Cited by 114
Treatment as usual and routine care in research and clinical practice
Kazdin, A. E. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.08.006 · Cited by 96
Self-citationProgress monitoring in mental health and addiction treatment: A means of improving care.
Goodman, J. D., McKay, J. R., & DePhilippis, D. (2013) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0032605 · Cited by 90
The Single-Case Reporting Guideline In BEhavioural Interventions (SCRIBE) 2016 statement.
Tate, R. L., Perdices, M., Rosenkoetter, U., Shadish, W., Vohra, S., Barlow, D. H., Horner, R., Kazdin, A., Kratochwill, T., McDonald, S., et al. (2016) · Archives of Scientific Psychology · doi:10.1037/arc0000026 · Cited by 66
Self-citationA staging approach to measuring patient‐centred subjective outcomes*
Bilsbury, C. D., & Richman, A. (2002) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1046/j.0001-690x.2002.00052.x · Cited by 60
Cunningham, T. R., & Austin, J. (2007) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1901/jaba.2007.673-677 · Cited by 60
Putting beauty back in the eye of the beholder.
Little, A. C., & Perrett, D. I. (2002) · Psychologist · Cited by 55
The Single-Case Reporting Guideline In BEhavioural Interventions (SCRIBE) 2016 Statement.
Tate, R., Perdices, M., Rosenkoetter, U., Shadish, W., Vohra, S., Barlow, D., Horner, R., Kazdin, A., Kratochwill, T., McDonald, S., et al. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2016.04.006 · Cited by 46
Self-citationA comparison of two approaches to training visual analysis of AB graphs
Wolfe, K., & Slocum, T. A. (2015) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.212 · Cited by 43
Moving targets: Patients' changing complaints during psychotherapy.
Sorenson, R. L., Gorsuch, R. L., & Mintz, J. (1985) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.53.1.49 · Cited by 33
EXPOSURE‐BASED TREATMENT TO CONTROL EXCESSIVE BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING
Allen, K. D., & Evans, J. H. (2001) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1901/jaba.2001.34-497 · Cited by 33
Clement, P. W. (1999) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 20
O’Grady, A. C., Reeve, S. A., Reeve, K. F., Vladescu, J. C., & Lake, C. M. (2018) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-018-0266-4 · Cited by 17
Bridging science and practice to improve patient care.
Kazdin, A. E. (2009) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0015600 · Cited by 15
Self-citationStory of "Hope": Successful Treatment of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Clement, P. W. (2007) · Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy · doi:10.14713/pcsp.v3i4.910 · Cited by 11
Outcome Research: Methods for Improving Outcome in Routine Care
Lambert, M. J. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1382-0_29 · Cited by 9
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Efficacy of bio- and neurofeedback for depression: a meta-analysis
Fernández‐Álvarez, J., Grassi, M., Colombo, D., Botella, C., Cipresso, P., Perna, G., & Riva, G. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721004396 · Cited by 109
Lindner, P., Dagöö, J., Hamilton, W., Miloff, A., Andersson, G., Schill, A., & Carlbring, P. (2020) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2020.1795240 · Cited by 84
Kanstrup, M., Kontio, E., Geranmayeh, A., Lauri, K. O., Moulds, M. L., & Holmes, E. A. (2020) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2489 · Cited by 52
A Priori Justification for Effect Measures in Single-Case Experimental Designs
Manolov, R., Moeyaert, M., & Fingerhut, J. E. (2022) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-021-00282-2 · Cited by 53
Treatment of provoked vulvodynia: a systematic review
Bohm-Starke, N., Ramsay, K. W., Lytsy, P., Nordgren, B., Sjöberg, I., Moberg, K., & Flink, I. (2022) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2022.02.008 · Cited by 51
Metadata
- Authors
- Kazdin, A. E.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kazdin, Alan E.
- ORCID
- Kazdin, Alan E.
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-06
- Volume
- 117
- Pages
- 3-17
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2902271959
- Cited by
- 217
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 6
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Keywords
- single-case experimental design, treatment efficacy assessment, clinical practice, generalizability of results, research ethics, continuous assessment, therapeutic change
- MeSH terms
- Data Analysis, Single-Case Studies as Topic, Humans, Research Design, Treatment Outcome
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review