The DOI matches its Crossref record; 443 of the 443 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The hallmarks of cancer immune evasion
Open accessAbstract
According to the widely accepted "three Es" model, the host immune system eliminates malignant cell precursors and contains microscopic neoplasms in a dynamic equilibrium, preventing cancer outgrowth until neoplastic cells acquire genetic or epigenetic alterations that enable immune escape. This immunoevasive phenotype originates from various mechanisms that can be classified under a novel "three Cs" conceptual framework: (1) camouflage, which hides cancer cells from immune recognition, (2) coercion, which directly or indirectly interferes with immune effector cells, and (3) cytoprotection, which shields malignant cells from immune cytotoxicity. Blocking the ability of neoplastic cells to evade the host immune system is crucial for increasing the efficacy of modern immunotherapy and conventional therapeutic strategies that ultimately activate anticancer immunosurveillance. Here, we review key hallmarks of cancer immune evasion under the "three Cs" framework and discuss promising strategies targeting such immunoevasive mechanisms.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
2 retracted
Liu, Y., Liang, X., Yin, X., Lv, J., Tang, K., Ma, J., Ji, T., Zhang, H., Dong, W., Jin, X., et al. (2017) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms15207 · Cited by 212
RetractedFang, L., Hao, Y., Yu, H., Gu, X., Peng, Q., Zhuo, H., Li, Y., Liu, Z., Wang, J., Chen, Y., et al. (2023) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccell.2023.05.005 · Cited by 134
RetractedHallmarks of Cancer: New Dimensions
Hanahan, D. (2022) · Cancer Discovery · doi:10.1158/2159-8290.cd-21-1059 · Cited by 9,887
Mutational landscape determines sensitivity to PD-1 blockade in non–small cell lung cancer
Rizvi, N. A., Hellmann, M. D., Snyder, A., Kvistborg, P., Makarov, V., Havel, J. J., Lee, W., Yuan, J., Wong, P., Ho, T. S., et al. (2015) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aaa1348 · Cited by 7,802
Self-citationTGFβ attenuates tumour response to PD-L1 blockade by contributing to exclusion of T cells
Mariathasan, S., Turley, S. J., Nickles, D., Castiglioni, A., Yuen, K., Wang, Y., Kadel III, E. E., Koeppen, H., Astarita, J. L., Cubas, R., et al. (2018) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature25501 · Cited by 5,400
Cancer immunoediting: from immunosurveillance to tumor escape
Dunn, G. P., Bruce, A. T., Ikeda, H., Old, L. J., & Schreiber, R. D. (2002) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/ni1102-991 · Cited by 5,393
Freeman, G. J., Long, A. J., Iwai, Y., Bourque, K., Chernova, T., Nishimura, H., Fitz, L. J., Malenkovich, N., Okazaki, T., Byrne, M. C., et al. (2000) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.192.7.1027 · Cited by 5,294
Release of chromatin protein HMGB1 by necrotic cells triggers inflammation
Scaffidi, P., Misteli, T., & Bianchi, M. E. (2002) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature00858 · Cited by 4,221
Tumor mutational load predicts survival after immunotherapy across multiple cancer types
Samstein, R. M., Lee, C.-H., Shoushtari, A. N., Hellmann, M. D., Shen, R., Janjigian, Y. Y., Barron, D. A., Zehir, A., Jordan, E. J., Omuro, A., et al. (2019) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0312-8 · Cited by 4,071
Self-citationMolecular and genetic properties of tumors associated with local immune cytolytic activity
Rooney, M. S., Shukla, S. A., Wu, C. J., Getz, G., & Hacohen, N. (2015) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.12.033 · Cited by 3,825
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Clement, 2021, 3-hydroxy-L-kynurenamine is an immunomodulatory biogenic amine, Nat. Commun., 12, 4447, 10.1038/s41467-021-24785-3 · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24785-3
- Sun, 2024, A phase I/II, open-label, multicenter study to evaluate the safety, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and efficacy of HB0036 in patients with advanced solid tumors, J. Clin. Oncol., 42, e14504, 10.1200/JCO.2024.42.16_suppl.e14504 · doi:10.1200/jco.2024.42.16_suppl.e14504
- Claff, 2023, Crystal structure of adenosine A(2A) receptor in complex with clinical candidate Etrumadenant reveals unprecedented antagonist interaction, Commun. Chem., 6, 106, 10.1038/s42004-023-00894-6 · doi:10.1038/s42004-023-00894-6
- Park, 2022, A phase IA dose-escalation study of PHI-101, a new checkpoint kinase 2 inhibitor, for platinum-resistant recurrent ovarian cancer, BMC Cancer, 22, 28, 10.1186/s12885-021-09138-z · doi:10.1186/s12885-021-09138-z
Cited by
Immune evasion in cancer: mechanisms and cutting-edge therapeutic approaches
Tufail, M., Jiang, C.-H., & Li, N. (2025) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-025-02280-1 · Cited by 363
Advances in molecular pathology and therapy of non-small cell lung cancer
Huang, Q., Li, Y., Huang, Y., Wu, J., Bao, W., Xue, C., Li, X., Dong, S., Dong, Z., & Hu, S. (2025) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-025-02243-6 · Cited by 197
Gouez, M., Pérol, O., Pialoux, V., Avrillon, V., Boussageon, M., Decroisette, C., Delrieu, L., El Hajj, H., Fournier, B., Gille, R., et al. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm15010334 · Cited by 3
“ICPi efficacy depends on effective antitumor immune response, including adequate immune system competence, tumor infiltration by T lymphocytes, recognition of tumor-specific antigens, and a permissive tumor microenvironment [6,7].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Galassi, C., Chan, T. A., Vitale, I., & Galluzzi, L.
- Venue
- Cancer Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2024-11
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1825-1863
- ISSN
- 1535-6108 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4403299725
- Cited by
- 565
- References
- 443
- FWCI
- 86.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- Licence
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (vor, 375 d)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
- Funders
- American-Italian Cancer Foundation (223565-01)
- National Cancer Institute (CA271915)
- Leukemia and Lymphoma Society
- Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro (IG 2022 27685)
- National Institutes of Health
- Stand Up To Cancer
- Weill Cornell Medicine
- Luke Heller Tec Pr2 Foundation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: The hallmarks of cancer immune evasion. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1016/j.ccell.2024.09.010
- The paper
- Galassi, C., Chan, T. A., Vitale, I., & Galluzzi, L. (2024). The hallmarks of cancer immune evasion. Cancer Cell. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2024.09.010
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
