CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 49Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology ResearchNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorParkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments

Activity-dependent somatodendritic dopamine release in the substantia nigra autoinhibits the releasing neuron

Open access
Hikima, Takuya, Lee, Christian R., Witkovsky, Paul, Chesler, Julia, Ichtchenko, Konstantin, Rice, Margaret E.·2021·Cell Reports
DOI 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108951PMC PMC8189326
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Somatodendritic dopamine (DA) release from midbrain DA neurons activates D2 autoreceptors on these cells to regulate their activity. However, the source of autoregulatory DA remains controversial. Here, we test the hypothesis that D2 autoreceptors on a given DA neuron in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) are activated primarily by DA released from that same cell, rather than from its neighbors. Voltage-clamp recording allows monitoring of evoked D2-receptor-mediated inhibitory currents (D2ICs) in SNc DA neurons as an index of DA release. Single-cell application of antibodies to Na + channels via the recording pipette decreases spontaneous activity of recorded neurons and attenuates evoked D2ICs; antibodies to SNAP-25, a soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein, also decrease D2IC amplitude. Evoked D2ICs are nearly abolished by the light chain of botulinum neurotoxin A, which cleaves SNAP-25, whereas synaptically activated GABA B -receptor-mediated currents are unaffected. Thus, somatodendritic DA release in the SNc autoinhibits the neuron that releases it.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108951

Cites

4 of 4 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 86

  1. Albin RL, Young AB, and Penney JB (1989). The functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders. Trends Neurosci. 12, 366– 375. 2479133
  2. Andrade R (1991). Blockade of neurotransmitter-activated K+ conductance by QX-314 in the rat hippocampus. Eur. J. Pharmacol 199, 259– 262. 1659537
  3. Baldwin MR, Bradshaw M, Johnson EA, and Barbieri JT (2004). The C-terminus of botulinum neurotoxin type A light chain contributes to solubility, catalysis, and stability. Protein Expr. Purif 37, 187– 195. 15294297
  4. Bayer VE, and Pickel VM (1990). Ultrastructural localization of tyrosine hydroxylase in the rat ventral tegmental area: relationship between immunolabeling density and neuronal associations. J. Neurosci 10, 2996– 3013. 1975839 PMC6570237
  5. Beckstead MJ, Grandy DK, Wickman K, and Williams JT (2004). Vesicular dopamine release elicits an inhibitory postsynaptic current in midbrain dopamine neurons. Neuron 42, 939– 946. 15207238
  6. Beckstead MJ, Ford CP, Phillips PEM, and Williams JT (2007). Presynaptic regulation of dendrodendritic dopamine transmission. Eur. J. Neurosci 26, 1479– 1488. 17822435 PMC3633601
  7. Bello EP, Mateo Y, Gelman DM, Noaín D, Shin JH, Low MJ, Alvarez VA, Lovinger DM, and Rubinstein M (2011). Cocaine supersensitivity and enhanced motivation for reward in mice lacking dopamine D2 autoreceptors. Nat. Neurosci 14, 1033– 1038. 21743470 PMC3175737
  8. Bergquist F, Shahabi HN, and Nissbrandt H (2003). Somatodendritic dopamine release in rat substantia nigra influences motor performance on the accelerating rod. Brain Res. 973, 81– 91. 12729956
  9. Blythe SN, Wokosin D, Atherton JF, and Bevan MD (2009). Cellular mechanisms underlying burst firing in substantia nigra dopamine neurons. J. Neurosci 29, 15531– 15541. 20007477 PMC2834564
  10. Carlsson A (2002). Treatment of Parkinson’s with L-DOPA. The early discovery phase, and a comment on current problems. J. Neural Transm. (Vienna) 109, 777– 787. 12111467
  11. Chen BT, and Rice ME (2001). Novel Ca2+ dependence and time course of somatodendritic dopamine release: substantia nigra versus striatum. J. Neurosci 21, 7841– 7847. 11567075 PMC6762877
  12. Chen BT, Avshalumov MV, and Rice ME (2002). Modulation of somatodendritic dopamine release by endogenous H(2)O(2): susceptibility in substantia nigra but resistance in VTA. J. Neurophysiol 87, 1155– 1158. 11826083
  13. Chen BT, Patel JC, Moran KA, and Rice ME (2011). Differential calcium dependence of axonal versus somatodendritic dopamine release, with characteristics of both in the ventral tegmental area. Front. Syst. Neurosci 5, 39. 21716634 PMC3115476
  14. Cheramy A, Leviel V, and Glowinski J (1981). Dendritic release of dopamine in the substantia nigra. Nature 289, 537– 542. 6258083
  15. Courtney NA, Mamaligas AA, and Ford CP (2012). Species differences in somatodendritic dopamine transmission determine D2-autoreceptor-mediated inhibition of ventral tegmental area neuron firing. J. Neurosci 32, 13520– 13528. 23015441 PMC3538874
  16. Cragg SJ, and Greenfield SA (1997). Differential autoreceptor control of somatodendritic and axon terminal dopamine release in substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, and striatum. J. Neurosci 17, 5738– 5746. 9221772 PMC6573186
  17. Cragg SJ, Nicholson C, Kume-Kick J, Tao L, and Rice ME (2001). Dopamine-mediated volume transmission in midbrain is regulated by distinct extracellular geometry and uptake. J. Neurophysiol 85, 1761– 1771. 11287497
  18. Crocker AD (1997). The regulation of motor control: an evaluation of the role of dopamine receptors in the substantia nigra. Rev. Neurosci 8, 55– 76. 9402645
  19. da Silva JA, Tecuapetla F, Paixão V, and Costa RM (2018). Dopamine neuron activity before action initiation gates and invigorates future movements. Nature 554, 244– 248. 29420469
  20. Davie JT, Kole MHP, Letzkus JJ, Rancz EA, Spruston N, Stuart GJ, and Häusser M (2006). Dendritic patch-clamp recording. Nat. Protoc 1, 1235– 1247. 17406407 PMC7616975
  21. Davila V, Yan Z, Craciun LC, Logothetis D, and Sulzer D (2003). D3 dopamine autoreceptors do not activate G-protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium channel currents in substantia nigra dopamine neurons. J. Neurosci 23, 5693– 5697. 12843272 PMC6741237
  22. Deutch AY, Goldstein M, Baldino F Jr., and Roth RH (1988). Telencephalic projections of the A8 dopamine cell group. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci 537, 27– 50. 2462395
  23. Ding S, Wei W, and Zhou F-M (2011). Molecular and functional differences in voltage-activated sodium currents between GABA projection neurons and dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra. J. Neurophysiol 106, 3019– 3034. 21880943 PMC3234097
  24. Estakhr J, Abazari D, Frisby K, McIntosh JM, and Nashmi R (2017). Differential control of dopaminergic excitability and locomotion by cholinergic inputs in mouse substantia nigra. Curr. Biol 27, 1900– 1914.e4. 28648825 PMC5529215
  25. Fan Y, Geren IN, Dong J, Lou J, Wen W, Conrad F, Smith TJ, Smith LA, Ho M, Pires-Alves M, (2015). Monoclonal antibodies targeting the alpha-exosite of botulinum neurotoxin serotype/A inhibit catalytic activity. PLoS ONE 10, e0135306. 26275214 PMC4537209
  26. Fang Q, Berberian K, Gong L-W, Hafez I, Sørensen JB, and Lindau M (2008). The role of the C terminus of the SNARE protein SNAP-25 in fusion pore opening and a model for fusion pore mechanics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105, 15388– 15392. 18829435 PMC2563113
  27. Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, and Schultz W (2003). Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons. Science 299, 1898– 1902. 12649484
  28. Ford CP (2014). The role of D2-autoreceptors in regulating dopamine neuron activity and transmission. Neuroscience 282, 13– 22. 24463000 PMC4108583
  29. Ford CP, Phillips PEM, and Williams JT (2009). The time course of dopamine transmission in the ventral tegmental area. J. Neurosci 29, 13344– 13352. 19846722 PMC2791792
  30. Ford CP, Gantz SC, Phillips PEM, and Williams JT (2010). Control of extracellular dopamine at dendrite and axon terminals. J. Neurosci 30, 6975– 6983. 20484639 PMC2883253
  31. Fortin GD, Desrosiers CC, Yamaguchi N, and Trudeau L-É (2006). Basal somatodendritic dopamine release requires snare proteins. J. Neurochem 96, 1740– 1749. 16539689
  32. Foster DJ, Gentry PR, Lizardi-Ortiz JE, Bridges TM, Wood MR, Niswender CM, Sulzer D, Lindsley CW, Xiang Z, and Conn PJ (2014). M5 receptor activation produces opposing physiological outcomes in dopamine neurons depending on the receptor’s location. J. Neurosci 34, 3253– 3262. 24573284 PMC3935086
  33. Gantz SC, Bunzow JR, and Williams JT (2013). Spontaneous inhibitory synaptic currents mediated by a G protein-coupled receptor. Neuron 78, 807– 812. 23764286 PMC3697754
  34. Gantz SC, Ford CP, Morikawa H, and Williams JT (2018). The evolving understanding of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. Annu. Rev. Physiol 80, 219– 241. 28938084
  35. Geffen LB, Jessell TM, Cuello AC, and Iversen LL (1976). Release of dopamine from dendrites in rat substantia nigra. Nature 260, 258– 260. 1256567
  36. Gentet LJ, and Williams SR (2007). Dopamine gates action potential backpropagation in midbrain dopaminergic neurons. J. Neurosci 27, 1892– 1901. 17314285 PMC6673536
  37. Gerfen CR, and Surmeier DJ (2011). Modulation of striatal projection systems by dopamine. Annu. Rev. Neurosci 34, 441– 466. 21469956 PMC3487690
  38. Gong B, Rhodes KJ, Bekele-Arcuri Z, and Trimmer JS (1999). Type I and type II Na+ channel α-subunit polypeptides exhibit distinct spatial and temporal patterning, and association with auxiliary subunits in rat brain. J. Comp. Neurol 412, 342– 352. 10441760
  39. González-Cabrera C, Meza R, Ulloa L, Merino-Sepúlveda P, Luco V, Sanhueza A, Oñate-Ponce A, Bolam JP, and Henny P (2017). Characterization of the axon initial segment of mice substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons. J. Comp. Neurol 525, 3529– 3542. 28734032
  40. Grace AA, and Onn S-P (1989). Morphology and electrophysiological properties of immunocytochemically identified rat dopamine neurons recorded in vitro. J. Neurosci 9, 3463– 3481. 2795134 PMC6569889
  41. Grenhoff J, North RA, and Johnson SW (1995). Alpha 1-adrenergic effects on dopamine neurons recorded intracellularly in the rat midbrain slice. Eur. J. Neurosci 7, 1707– 1713. 7582125
  42. Groves PM, Wilson CJ, Young SJ, and Rebec GV (1975). Self-inhibition by dopaminergic neurons. Science 190, 522– 528. 242074
  43. Hage TA, and Khaliq ZM (2015). Tonic firing rate controls dendritic Ca2+ signaling and synaptic gain in substantia nigra dopamine neurons. J. Neurosci 35, 5823– 5836. 25855191 PMC4388935
  44. Häusser M, Stuart G, Racca C, and Sakmann B (1995). Axonal initiation and active dendritic propagation of action potentials in substantia nigra neurons. Neuron 15, 637– 647. 7546743
  45. Howe MW, and Dombeck DA (2016). Rapid signalling in distinct dopaminergic axons during locomotion and reward. Nature 535, 505– 510. 27398617 PMC4970879
  46. Hubert GW, Paquet M, and Smith Y (2001). Differential subcellular localization of mGluR1a and mGluR5 in the rat and monkey Substantia nigra. J. Neurosci 21, 1838– 1847. 11245668 PMC6762609
  47. Inanobe A, Yoshimoto Y, Horio Y, Morishige K-I, Hibino H, Matsumoto S, Tokunaga Y, Maeda T, Hata Y, Takai Y, and Kurachi Y (1999). Characterization of G-protein-gated K+ channels composed of Kir3.2 subunits in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. J. Neurosci 19, 1006– 1017. 9920664 PMC6782136
  48. Irfan M, Gopaul KR, Miry O, Hökfelt T, Stanton PK, and Bark C (2019). SNAP-25 isoforms differentially regulate synaptic transmission and long-term synaptic plasticity at central synapses. Sci. Rep 9, 6403. 31024034 PMC6484009
  49. Jahn R, and Fasshauer D (2012). Molecular machines governing exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Nature 490, 201– 207. 23060190 PMC4461657
  50. Jin X, and Costa RM (2010). Start/stop signals emerge in nigrostriatal circuits during sequence learning. Nature 466, 457– 462. 20651684 PMC3477867
  51. Juraska JM, Wilson CJ, and Groves PM (1977). The substantia nigra of the rat: a Golgi study. J. Comp. Neurol 172, 585– 600. 65369
  52. Kalume F, Oakley JC, Westenbroek RE, Gile J, de la Iglesia HO, Scheuer T, and Catterall WA (2015). Sleep impairment and reduced interneuron excitability in a mouse model of Dravet Syndrome. Neurobiol. Dis 77, 141– 154. 25766678 PMC4402280
  53. Khaliq ZM, and Bean BP (2010). Pacemaking in dopaminergic ventral tegmental area neurons: depolarizing drive from background and voltage-dependent sodium conductances. J. Neurosci 30, 7401– 7413. 20505107 PMC2892804
  54. Koyrakh L, Luján R, Colón J, Karschin C, Kurachi Y, Karschin A, and Wickman K (2005). Molecular and cellular diversity of neuronal G-protein-gated potassium channels. J. Neurosci 25, 11468– 11478. 16339040 PMC6725904
  55. Lacey MG, Mercuri NB, and North RA (1988). On the potassium conductance increase activated by GABAB and dopamine D2 receptors in rat substantia nigra neurones. J. Physiol 401, 437– 453. 2459376 PMC1191858
  56. Lee CR, Machold RP, Witkovsky P, and Rice ME (2013). TRPM2 channels are required for NMDA-induced burst firing and contribute to H(2)O(2)-dependent modulation in substantia nigra pars reticulata GABAergic neurons. J. Neurosci 33, 1157– 1168. 23325252 PMC3705724
  57. Lledo P-M, Zhang X, Südhof TC, Malenka RC, and Nicoll RA (1998). Postsynaptic membrane fusion and long-term potentiation. Science 279, 399– 403. 9430593
  58. Lobb CJ, Wilson CJ, and Paladini CA (2010). A dynamic role for GABA receptors on the firing pattern of midbrain dopaminergic neurons. J. Neurophysiol 104, 403– 413. 20445035 PMC2904231
  59. Lüscher C, Xia H, Beattie EC, Carroll RC, von Zastrow M, Malenka RC, and Nicoll RA (1999). Role of AMPA receptor cycling in synaptic transmission and plasticity. Neuron 24, 649– 658. 10595516
  60. Mendez JA, Bourque M-J, Fasano C, Kortleven C, and Trudeau L-E (2011). Somatodendritic dopamine release requires synaptotagmin 4 and 7 and the participation of voltage-gated calcium channels. J. Biol. Chem 286, 23928– 23937. 21576241 PMC3129174
  61. Mohebi A, Pettibone JR, Hamid AA, Wong JT, Vinson LT, Patriarchi T, Tian L, Kennedy RT, and Berke JD (2019). Dissociable dopamine dynamics for learning and motivation. Nature 570, 65– 70. 31118513 PMC6555489
  62. Montal M (2010). Botulinum neurotoxin: a marvel of protein design. Annu. Rev. Biochem 79, 591– 617. 20233039
  63. Mozrzymas JW, Zarnowska ED, Pytel M, and Mercik K (2003). Modulation of GABA(A) receptors by hydrogen ions reveals synaptic GABA transient and a crucial role of the desensitization process. J. Neurosci 23, 7981– 7992. 12954859 PMC6740496
  64. Nirenberg MJ, Vaughan RA, Uhl GR, Kuhar MJ, and Pickel VM (1996a). The dopamine transporter is localized to dendritic and axonal plasma membranes of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. J. Neurosci 16, 436– 447. 8551328 PMC6578661
  65. Nirenberg MJ, Chan J, Liu Y, Edwards RH, and Pickel VM (1996b). Ultrastructural localization of the vesicular monoamine transporter-2 in midbrain dopaminergic neurons: potential sites for somatodendritic storage and release of dopamine. J. Neurosci 16, 4135– 4145. 8753875 PMC6579002
  66. Nirenberg MJ, Chan J, Vaughan RA, Uhl GR, Kuhar MJ, and Pickel VM (1997). Immunogold localization of the dopamine transporter: an ultrastructural study of the rat ventral tegmental area. J. Neurosci 17, 5255– 5262. 9204909 PMC6793826
  67. Oswald MJ, Oorschot DE, Schulz JM, Lipski J, and Reynolds JNJ (2009). IH current generates the afterhyperpolarisation following activation of subthreshold cortical synaptic inputs to striatal cholinergic interneurons. J. Physiol 587, 5879– 5897. 19884321 PMC2808546
  68. Overstreet LS, Westbrook GL, and Jones MV (2002). Measuring and modeling the spatiotemporal profile of GABA at the synapse. In Transmembrane Transporters, Quick WM, ed. (Wiley-Liss), pp. 259– 275.
  69. Patel JC, Witkovsky P, Avshalumov MV, and Rice ME (2009). Mobilization of calcium from intracellular stores facilitates somatodendritic dopamine release. J. Neurosci 29, 6568– 6579. 19458227 PMC2892889
  70. Petit-Jacques J, Sui JL, and Logothetis DE (1999). Synergistic activation of G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium channels by the βγ subunits of G proteins and Na+ and Mg2+ ions. J. Gen. Physiol 114, 673– 684. 10532964 PMC2230539
  71. Philippart F, and Khaliq ZM (2018). Gi/o protein-coupled receptors in dopamine neurons inhibit the sodium leak channel NALCN. eLife 7, e40984. 30556810 PMC6305199
  72. Planells-Cases R, Caprini M, Zhang J, Rockenstein EM, Rivera RR, Murre C, Masliah E, and Montal M (2000). Neuronal death and perinatal lethality in voltage-gated sodium channel α(II)-deficient mice. Biophys. J. 78, 2878– 2891. 10827969 PMC1300874
  73. Pucak ML, and Grace AA (1994). Evidence that systemically administered dopamine antagonists activate dopamine neuron firing primarily by blockade of somatodendritic autoreceptors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther 271, 1181– 1192. 7996424
  74. Puopolo M, Raviola E, and Bean BP (2007). Roles of subthreshold calcium current and sodium current in spontaneous firing of mouse midbrain dopamine neurons. J. Neurosci 27, 645– 656. 17234596 PMC6672803
  75. Rice ME, and Cragg SJ (2008). Dopamine spillover after quantal release: rethinking dopamine transmission in the nigrostriatal pathway. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev 58, 303– 313. PMC2879278 18433875
  76. Rice ME, and Patel JC (2015). Somatodendritic dopamine release: recent mechanistic insights. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci 370, 1– 14. PMC4455754 26009764
  77. Robertson GS, Damsma G, and Fibiger HC (1991). Characterization of dopamine release in the substantia nigra by in vivo microdialysis in freely moving rats. J. Neurosci 11, 2209– 2216. 1712381 PMC6575457
  78. Robinson BG, Bunzow JR, Grimm JB, Lavis LD, Dudman JT, Brown J, Neve KA, and Williams JT (2017). Desensitized D2 autoreceptors are resistant to trafficking. Sci. Rep 7, 4379. 28663556 PMC5491503
  79. Santiago M, Machado A, and Cano J (1992). Fast sodium channel dependency of the somatodendritic release of dopamine in the rat’s brain. Neurosci. Lett 148, 145– 147. 1338647
  80. Stuhrman K, and Roseberry AG (2015). Neurotensin inhibits both dopamine- and GABA-mediated inhibition of ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons. J. Neurophysiol 114, 1734– 1745. 26180119 PMC4571768
  81. Sulzer D, Cragg SJ, and Rice ME (2016). Striatal dopamine neurotransmission: regulation of release and uptake. Basal Ganglia 6, 123– 148. 27141430 PMC4850498
  82. Wang W, Touhara KK, Weir K, Bean BP, and MacKinnon R (2016). Cooperative regulation by G proteins and Na+ of neuronal GIRK2 K+ channels. eLife 5, e15751. 27074662 PMC4866826
  83. Wassef M, Berod A, and Sotelo C (1981). Dopaminergic dendrites in the pars reticulata of the rat substantia nigra and their striatal input. Combined immunocytochemical localization of tyrosine hydroxylase and anterograde degeneration. Neuroscience 6, 2125– 2139. 6120482
  84. Wilson CJ, and Kawaguchi Y (1996). The origins of two-state spontaneous membrane potential fluctuations of neostriatal spiny neurons. J. Neurosci 16, 2397– 2410. 8601819 PMC6578540
  85. Witkovsky P, Patel JC, Lee CR, and Rice ME (2009). Immunocytochemical identification of proteins involved in dopamine release from the somatodendritic compartment of nigral dopaminergic neurons. Neuroscience 164, 488– 496. 19682556 PMC2879289
  86. Zhou F-W, Jin Y, Matta SG, Xu M, and Zhou F-M (2009). An ultra-short dopamine pathway regulates basal ganglia output. J. Neurosci 29, 10424– 10435. 19692618 PMC3596265

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Hikima, T., Lee, C. R., Witkovsky, P., Chesler, J., Ichtchenko, K., & Rice, M. E.
Affiliations
  • New York University (US)
  • NYU Langone Health (US)
Corresponding author
Rice, Margaret E.
ORCID
Venue
Cell Reports
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2021-04
Volume
35
Issue
1
Pages
108951
ISSN
2211-1247 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108951
PMC
PMC8189326
OpenAlex
W3152378188
Cited by
49
References
4
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 2
FWCI
3.01
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Cell Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
National Institutes of Health
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
Keywords
substantia nigra pars compacta, autoinhibition, dopaminergic neurons, dopamine D1 receptor, dopamine D2 receptor
MeSH terms
Animals, Antibodies, Dendrites, Dopamine, Electric Stimulation, gamma-Aminobutyric Acid, Kinetics, Male, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Substantia Nigra, Receptors, Dopamine D2, Synaptosomal-Associated Protein 25, Mice, Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials, Single-Cell Analysis, Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review