The DOI matches its Crossref record; 32 of the 32 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 2 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Cross-Sectional Studies
Open accessAbstract
Cross-sectional studies are observational studies that analyze data from a population at a single point in time. They are often used to measure the prevalence of health outcomes, understand determinants of health, and describe features of a population. Unlike other types of observational studies, cross-sectional studies do not follow individuals up over time. They are usually inexpensive and easy to conduct. They are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study. This article reviews the essential characteristics, describes strengths and weaknesses, discusses methodological issues, and gives our recommendations on design and statistical analysis for cross-sectional studies in pulmonary and critical care medicine. A list of considerations for reviewers is also provided.
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Claims the paper makes
11 Own interpretation · 1 Sources not found · 1 No full text of the sources
In the paper
“Prevalenceincidence bias (also called the Neyman bias) is also particularly common in cross-sectional studies.13”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Bias
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Tripepi, 2010, Selection bias and information bias in clinical research, Nephron Clin Pract source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They cannot be used to look at individual change (as in a cohort study).”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because the outcome and exposure variables are measured at the same time, it is relatively difficult to establish causal relationships from a cross-sectional study.”
- Also stated in: § Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
“The exposures and outcomes are measured simultaneously; therefore, it is difficult to determine whether the exposures preceded or followed the outcomes in an analytical cross-sectional study.”
- Also stated in: § Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > General Overview of Cross-Sectional Study Design
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, repeated cross-sectional studies can be used for analyzing population changes over time (also known as aggregate change over time).”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“If one wants to compare two prevalence rates in an analytical cross-sectional study, the commonly used sample size formula is the same as is used when designing a cohort study.6”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Sample Size Determination
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6] Fleiss, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike studies starting from a series of patients, cross-sectional studies often need to select a sample of subjects from a large and heterogeneous study population.Thus, they are susceptible to sampling bias.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The subjects are neither deliberately exposed nor treated; thus, there are seldom ethical difficulties.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
- It may state two separate claims as one. 3
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stepwise selection methods and P value-based criteria are discouraged due to overfitting and because they often allow too many parameters to be included, which reduces the generalizability of the model.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Confounding could result in a distortion of the association between exposure and outcome.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Confounding
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that the sample size in a descriptive study does not depend on statistical power because this concept only applies to statistical comparisons.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Sample Size Determination
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
- Also stated in: § 1. The study population and the research question. · plain
“Unable to measure the incidence”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § 1. The study population and the research question. · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only with full and transparent reporting of information on all aspects of a cross-sectional study can potential usefulness of its findings and risk of bias be adequately assessed.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because exposure and outcome are measured simultaneously in a cross-sectional study, prior knowledge of the condition might influence the ascertainment of the exposure or the outcome, which results in recall bias.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Bias
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are usually quick and inexpensive to conduct.
“They are usually inexpensive and easy to conduct.”
“The main strength of cross-sectional studies is that they are relatively quick and inexpensive to conduct.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are the best way to determine prevalence.
“They are the best way to determine the prevalence and can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.
“They are the best way to determine the prevalence and can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study.
“They are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are suitable for generating hypotheses and may provide information about the prevalence of outcomes and exposures that informs other study designs.
“They are suitable for generating hypotheses and may provide information about the prevalence of outcomes and exposures that informs other study designs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Using questionnaires to reach a large sample of the population of interest is relatively inexpensive but can result in low response rates.
“Using questionnaires to reach a large sample of the population of interest is relatively inexpensive but can result in low response rates.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Interviews are more expensive and time-consuming than using questionnaires, potentially limiting the sample size but leading to a higher response rate.
“Interviews are more expensive and time-consuming than using questionnaires, potentially limiting the sample size but leading to a higher response rate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies cannot study rare diseases.
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Probability sampling methods are more accurate and rigorous than nonprobability sampling methods.
“In general, probability sampling methods are preferred over nonprobability ones, as the former are considered to be more accurate and rigorous.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Nonresponse bias is usually encountered in cross-sectional survey studies with mailed questionnaires.
“A common type of selection bias is the nonresponse bias, which is usually encountered in crosssectional survey studies with mailed questionnaires.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recall bias and detection bias are two common information biases.
“Recall bias and detection bias are two common information biases.”
Citations
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Marko, M., Adamčák, Š., Kollár, R., & Azor, S. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16081336
“Cross-sectional designs collect information on variables in a defined population at a particular point or period in time and are appropriate for examining associations between characteristics without manipulating the study conditions (X. Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
Bamedhaf, O., Otaki, F., & Amir‐Rad, F. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10351575/v1
Saifuddin, F. A., Rustandi, R. U., Farkhan, M., et al. (2026) · International Conference on ICT for Smart Society (ICISS) · doi:10.1109/iciss71466.2026.11715250
Impact of diabetes mellitus on the menopausal experience: A scoping review
Black, R. J., Hasson, F., King, L., Davies, M., Muldrew, D. H. L., Slater, P. F., Johnston, J. L., Adams, D. W., Murphy, R., Kernohan, G. W., et al. (2026) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.70420
Aboagye, G. K., Anhwere, D. K., Quayson, E., Buabeng-Boateng, A. T., Inkoom, R. A., Asiedu-Boamah, B., Ocrah, N. A., & Adams, H. (2026) · Science Mundi · doi:10.51867/scimundi.6.2.19
“A descriptive cross-sectional design is appropriate for research that seeks to collect data to describe, explain, and interpret existing conditions or relationships among variables within a defined population (Wang & Cheng, 2020; Hunziker & Blankenagel, 2021; Ghanad, 2023).”
Bhanot, N., Sharma, R., & Dutta, T. (2026) · SN Business & Economics · doi:10.1007/s43546-026-01344-w
“The cross-sectional design was appropriate because data were collected from respondents at a single point in time, which is suitable for analysing relationships among perceptions, attitudes, and behavioural intentions within a specific population (X. Wang and Cheng 2020 ).”
Mankaga, E. P., Mwakilema, N. S., & Msuya, R. I. (2026) · Strategic Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.sbr.2026.100274
Pérez-Lalinde, S., Pinto-Rodríguez, C., & Palencia-Sánchez, F. (2026) · Hacia la Promoción de la Salud · doi:10.17151/hpsal.2026.31.1.8
Nurses’ knowledge and practice towards home palliative care of elderly patients
Baker, O. G., Alrasheedi, F. H., Almutairi, A. M., et al. (2026) · Palliative Care and Social Practice · doi:10.1177/26323524261481867
Saleh, W. A., El‐Sayed, M. M., Elshazly, E. M. A., Othman, A. A., Elsayed, B. K. M., Alqarawi, N., & Ali, A. A. M. (2026) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1155/jonm/5563937
Students' Experiences in Clinical Training in Telepsychology: A Multicenter Study in ColombiaPreprint
Llamas, T. C., Ramírez-Castro, M. F., López-Sánchez, M. C., Peña, A. M. A., Cordero-Galíndez, C. F., Velásquez, D. I. M., Osorio, J. R. P., Marín, M., Triviño, J. D. M., Munar, D. R. S., et al. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10542851/v1
Kori, D. S., Kelso, C., & Musakwa, W. (2026) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2026.103447
Deepak, B., Acharya, V., Lakshmi, R. V., & Dsouza, D. D. (2026) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/hbe2/6314594
Sagayanathan, R., Wichaidit, W., & Stafström, M. (2026) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2026.100738
“Self-reported data introduces potential bias, including social desirability, as sensitive questions on mental health and drug use may lead participants to modify responses (Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
Korankye, G., Owusu, G. M. Y., & Welbeck, E. E. (2026) · International Journal of Ethics and Systems · doi:10.1108/ijoes-05-2025-0284
Li, X., Chen, S., Zhang, R., Yin, Y., Qiaoyan, Y., Li, T., Songbo, Z., & Linpu, G. (2026) · Engineering Construction & Architectural Management · doi:10.1108/ecam-12-2025-1927
Peña, J. A. V., & Martínez, C. C. (2026) · Bastcorp International Journal. · doi:10.62943/bij.v5n2.2026.601
Zhou, J., Wei, M., Huang, J., & Dai, Q. (2026) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2026.1878074
“The data collected in this study are cross-sectional and based on employees’ self-reported questionnaires, which may limit the generalizability of the findings (Anvari et al., 2023; Wang and Cheng, 2020).”
Lemamsha, H., & Randhawa, G. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18172828
“Such designs are operationally feasible for geographically dispersed maternal populations and multi-site investigations [47].”
Akrim, T. A. (2026) · Derna Academy Journal for Applied Sciences · doi:10.71147/0rjbjq66
Communication access and drought response strategies among rural farming households in Somaliland
Omer, M. A. (2026) · Cogent Food & Agriculture · doi:10.1080/23311932.2026.2725343
Haruna, J. J., Kemuel, K., Zira, I., Markus, R. Z., Ede, W. O., Abdullahi, M., Halimatu, A., Karimu, P., John, A. O., Gawinan, K. K., et al. (2026) · SSM - Health Systems · doi:10.1016/j.ssmhs.2026.100300
Preissler, A. A. B., Clemente, F. M., Casal, M. Z., et al. (2026) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports14090379
“The cross-sectional design identifies contemporaneous associations but cannot establish temporal direction or whether changes in jump or grip pull-up performance would improve SJFT outcomes [28].”
Mandal, S., Behera, J., Paira, K., & Shit, B. (2026) · SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine · doi:10.1007/s42399-026-02661-9
Ashenden, R., Okumu, E., Adams, D., et al. (2026) · Community Health Equity Research & Policy · doi:10.1177/2752535x261481201
Zinabu, S. A., Mihirka, A. A., Wubshet, H., et al. (2026) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-026-02096-3
Giyanti, I., Asih, A. M. S., & Masruroh, N. A. (2026) · Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies · doi:10.1108/jadee-11-2025-0523
El empaque como detonante de valor en jóvenes: percepciones, significados en la decisión de compra
Ruiz, E. D., Martínez, A. P. M., & Ramón, E. M. (2026) · The Anáhuac Journal · doi:10.36105/theanahuacjour.2026v26n2.3185
Auriti, C., Gizzi, C., Riccò, M., et al. (2026) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v18090982
Chronic pain and mobile health: Are the apps that occupational therapists recommend of high quality?
Smith, J., Tran, T., Hunt, J., & Liddiard, K. J. (2026) · Australian Occupational Therapy Journal · doi:10.1111/1440-1630.70111
“Using a cross-sectional descriptive design (Amor-García et al., 2020; Stoyanov et al., 2015; Wang & Cheng, 2020), the study was conducted in two stages (Figure 1).”
Cultura de riesgo y calidad de la planificación institucional en gobiernos locales
Pincay, D. E. Á., & Aguilera, B. E. P. (2026) · Ciencia Interdisciplinaria Internacional · doi:10.70577/cieninter.v4i3.104
Fei, Y., & Cai, Y. (2026) · Psycho-Oncologie · doi:10.18282/po6355
Ma, G., Deng, C., Zhang, Z., Ding, Q., & Gu, C. (2026) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/87506
“Traditional cross-sectional surveys and retrospective designs inadequately capture this dynamic nature and are susceptible to recall bias [7], critically impeding nuanced understanding of patients’ real-world experiences and the development of personalized intervention strategies [8].”
Mathe, A., Tison, F., Sztark, F., Mellet, E., Ouattara, A., Gruson, D., Baudron, C. R., Sibon, I., Roux, D., Dehail, P., et al. (2026) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2026-125171
Itani, L., Berri, E., Berti, O., et al. (2026) · Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology · doi:10.3390/jfmk11030362
Garas, M., Star, R., & Pukall, C. F. (2026) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2026.2728632
Turin, C. J. R., & Schneider, S. F. (2026) · International Journal of Research on Multidisciplinary Studies · doi:10.67903/ijroms0389
Kopciuch, D., Kapcińska, A., Kus, K., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1915903
“The study was planned and reported with reference to recommendations for transparent reporting of observational and cross-sectional studies (39, 40).”
Technostress and Productivity: Evidence from Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) Workers
Ogore, F. M., Wamuyu, P. K., & Chegee, G. (2026) · African Journal of Commercial Studies · doi:10.59413/ajocs/v7.i5.12
Ho, O. K., Leong, C. S., Pang, W. I. P., et al. (2026) · Nursing Forum · doi:10.1155/nuf/2185185
Das, S., Khatun, S., & Das, N. (2026) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-026-01703-2
“The cross section study is a research design that helps to capture sample population at a specific point of time (Malički et al. 2019; Wang and Cheng 2020).”
CASTELLUCCI, A., Rada, E. C., Zunguze, A. D. N. A., Cazonda, M. I., & Ragazzi, M. (2026) · Management of Environmental Quality An International Journal · doi:10.1108/meq-10-2025-0711
Paterno, J., Boocan, A., Lu-ib, J., et al. (2026) · Journal of Educational Research and Practice. · doi:10.70376/jerp.v4i2.449
Metadata
- Authors
- Wang, X., & Cheng, Z.
- Affiliations
- Cleveland Clinic (US)
- Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Wang, Xiaofeng
- Venue
- CHEST
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 158
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- S65-S71
- ISSN
- 0012-3692 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3039445169
- Cited by
- 2,214
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 636 · 2025: 638 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 282 · 2022: 162 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 8
- FWCI
- 90.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- CHEST Journal (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Methodologies in Health Research and Practice
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Keywords
- cross-sectional study, observational study design, prevalence, health determinants, methodological issues, statistical analysis, respiratory medicine, intensive care, research design recommendations, peer review
- MeSH terms
- Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Guidelines as Topic
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