The DOI matches its Crossref record; 32 of the 32 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 2 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Cross-Sectional Studies
Open accessAbstract
Cross-sectional studies are observational studies that analyze data from a population at a single point in time. They are often used to measure the prevalence of health outcomes, understand determinants of health, and describe features of a population. Unlike other types of observational studies, cross-sectional studies do not follow individuals up over time. They are usually inexpensive and easy to conduct. They are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study. This article reviews the essential characteristics, describes strengths and weaknesses, discusses methodological issues, and gives our recommendations on design and statistical analysis for cross-sectional studies in pulmonary and critical care medicine. A list of considerations for reviewers is also provided.
Overview
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Claims the paper makes
11 Own interpretation · 1 Sources not found · 1 No full text of the sources
In the paper
“Prevalenceincidence bias (also called the Neyman bias) is also particularly common in cross-sectional studies.13”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Bias
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Tripepi, 2010, Selection bias and information bias in clinical research, Nephron Clin Pract source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They cannot be used to look at individual change (as in a cohort study).”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because the outcome and exposure variables are measured at the same time, it is relatively difficult to establish causal relationships from a cross-sectional study.”
- Also stated in: § Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
“The exposures and outcomes are measured simultaneously; therefore, it is difficult to determine whether the exposures preceded or followed the outcomes in an analytical cross-sectional study.”
- Also stated in: § Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > General Overview of Cross-Sectional Study Design
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, repeated cross-sectional studies can be used for analyzing population changes over time (also known as aggregate change over time).”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“If one wants to compare two prevalence rates in an analytical cross-sectional study, the commonly used sample size formula is the same as is used when designing a cohort study.6”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Sample Size Determination
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6] Fleiss, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike studies starting from a series of patients, cross-sectional studies often need to select a sample of subjects from a large and heterogeneous study population.Thus, they are susceptible to sampling bias.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The subjects are neither deliberately exposed nor treated; thus, there are seldom ethical difficulties.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
- It may state two separate claims as one. 3
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stepwise selection methods and P value-based criteria are discouraged due to overfitting and because they often allow too many parameters to be included, which reduces the generalizability of the model.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Confounding could result in a distortion of the association between exposure and outcome.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Confounding
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that the sample size in a descriptive study does not depend on statistical power because this concept only applies to statistical comparisons.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Sample Size Determination
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
- Also stated in: § 1. The study population and the research question. · plain
“Unable to measure the incidence”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § 1. The study population and the research question. · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only with full and transparent reporting of information on all aspects of a cross-sectional study can potential usefulness of its findings and risk of bias be adequately assessed.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because exposure and outcome are measured simultaneously in a cross-sectional study, prior knowledge of the condition might influence the ascertainment of the exposure or the outcome, which results in recall bias.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Bias
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are usually quick and inexpensive to conduct.
“They are usually inexpensive and easy to conduct.”
“The main strength of cross-sectional studies is that they are relatively quick and inexpensive to conduct.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are the best way to determine prevalence.
“They are the best way to determine the prevalence and can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.
“They are the best way to determine the prevalence and can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study.
“They are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are suitable for generating hypotheses and may provide information about the prevalence of outcomes and exposures that informs other study designs.
“They are suitable for generating hypotheses and may provide information about the prevalence of outcomes and exposures that informs other study designs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Using questionnaires to reach a large sample of the population of interest is relatively inexpensive but can result in low response rates.
“Using questionnaires to reach a large sample of the population of interest is relatively inexpensive but can result in low response rates.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Interviews are more expensive and time-consuming than using questionnaires, potentially limiting the sample size but leading to a higher response rate.
“Interviews are more expensive and time-consuming than using questionnaires, potentially limiting the sample size but leading to a higher response rate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies cannot study rare diseases.
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Probability sampling methods are more accurate and rigorous than nonprobability sampling methods.
“In general, probability sampling methods are preferred over nonprobability ones, as the former are considered to be more accurate and rigorous.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Nonresponse bias is usually encountered in cross-sectional survey studies with mailed questionnaires.
“A common type of selection bias is the nonresponse bias, which is usually encountered in crosssectional survey studies with mailed questionnaires.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recall bias and detection bias are two common information biases.
“Recall bias and detection bias are two common information biases.”
Citations
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Trasia, R. F., Faruqi, A., Winita, R., et al. (2024) · International Islamic Medical Journal · doi:10.33086/iimj.v6i2.6345
Jeong, J., Jo, H., Son, Y., et al. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-98106-9
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review with a dental perspective
Liu, N., Budhdeo, R., & Bhujel, N. (2025) · Dental Update · doi:10.12968/denu.2025.52.4.253
Biopsychosocial impacts of mother loss on daughters in Australia: Cross-sectional study
Bowring, J., Parigi, E., Karantzas, G. C., Chesterman, S., Naude, C., Cheah, S., Evans, S., Skvarc, D., Snelling, D., Baker, E., et al. (2025) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2025.2491571 · Cited by 1
“A noteworthy limitation of this study is its cross-sectional design, which makes it impossible to identify causal relationships between predictor and outcome variables (Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
Visualising and evaluating learning/achievement consistency in introductory statistics
Axelsen, T., King, R., & Curtis, E. (2025) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2025.2492727
Sidiq, M., Sharma, J., Chahal, A., Vajrala, K. R., & Gupta, S. (2025) · LatIA · doi:10.62486/latia2025336
Rasch Model Analysis: Validity and Reliability of Body Image Instrumen for Adolescent Prisoners
Kusnadi, G. A.-Z., Supriatna, M., & Yudha, E. S. (2024) · Jurnal Ilmiah Bimbingan Konseling Undiksha · doi:10.23887/jibk.v15i1.81228
“This is supported by Arikunto's statement which explains that all members of the population can be sampled if the population is less than 100 people (Arikunto, 2009; Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
Saint-Jules, W., Massé‐Alarie, H., Li‐Jessen, N. Y. K., et al. (2025) · Journal of Voice · doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2025.03.032
Exploring undergraduate medical imaging students’ perception of clinical stressors in Ghana
Razak, W. A., & Asamoah, A. S. (2025) · Radiography · doi:10.1016/j.radi.2025.102963 · Cited by 1
Sun, Y., Chen, Q., Xu, Z., & Yuan, Y. (2025) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2025.2497437 · Cited by 1
“…limitations, as it cannot reflect causal relationships since all data are collected at the same time (Maier et al. 2023); and (2) potential biases, such as selection bias, which may skew the estimated associations between variables (Maxwell and Cole 2007; Wang and Cheng 2020).”
Kanyungu, S. (2025) · International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-4478) · doi:10.20525/ijrbs.v14i3.4051
“This design was deemed appropriate as it effectively measures the prevalence of health conditions through an observational approach (Wang & Cheng, 2020b).”
Lin, S. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5837-5.ch008
Carey, M. C., Coad, J. E., Coyne, I., et al. (2025) · Comprehensive Child and Adolescent Nursing · doi:10.1080/24694193.2025.2502916
“A key strength of the cross-sectional design is the action of capturing data at a single point in time, providing a snapshot of international terminology (Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
Limson, J. P. (2025) · International Journal of ADVANCED AND APPLIED SCIENCES · doi:10.21833/ijaas.2025.03.016
Bajpai, M. (2025) · Acta Odontologica Scandinavica · doi:10.2340/aos.v84.43601
“The study likely employs a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to establish causal relationships between illicit drug use and oral health outcomes [2].”
Dietary Vitamin C Intake Affects Lung Function Through White Blood Cell
Hu, B., Lu, Y., Zhang, Y., Deng, W., Zhong, H., Miao, C., Wang, C., & Cai, J. (2025) · Food Science & Nutrition · doi:10.1002/fsn3.70299
Delsignore, G., Oliván‐Blázquez, B., Aguilar‐Latorre, A., & Ruiz, P. G. (2025) · Sociological Spectrum · doi:10.1080/02732173.2025.2499838
“Another limitation is the inherent challenge in cross-sectional studies: the difficulty in making causal inferences and interpreting the identified associations (Wang and Cheng 2020).”
Lillsjö, E., Willman, A., Jonasson, L., & Josefsson, K. (2025) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-025-03210-w
Borchers, L., & Mills, D. (2025) · Community Development · doi:10.1080/15575330.2025.2505161
“Cross-sectional studies are studies which are observational and analyze data from a single point in time (Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
Dyett, P. A., Foster-Nicholas, L. A., Mitchell, C., et al. (2025) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/00469580251340177
Marthoenis, M., Rizki Fitryasari, P. K., Warsini, S., Martina, M., & Usman, S. (2025) · Nursing and Health Sciences · doi:10.1111/nhs.70155
“This design was selected because it enables the assessment of associations between variables at a single point in time, making it suitable for identifying predictors of health-seeking behavior in a large population sample (Wang and Cheng 2020).”
Kouroukli, E., Pappa, E., & Niakas, D. (2025) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.85167
Adams, M. A., & Kasztelnik, K. (2025) · Journal of Strategic Innovation and Sustainability · doi:10.33423/jsis.v20i2.7658
Kotrikadze, N., Zoidze, A., & Gotsadze, G. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.06.02.25328247
Rahhal, R., & Ghalayini, T. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-90391-2.00002-6
Influence of Aesthetics on Customer’s Choice of Unrated Budget Hotels in Nairobi Kenya
Gichira, L. W., Miricho, M., & Njau, F. W. (2025) · doi:10.38124/ijisrt/25may2011
Khoiriyah, M., Ilhamsyah, N., Putri, A. A. B., et al. (2025) · Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice · doi:10.25259/jnrp_360_2024
Suleiman, N., Ahmad, I., & Yuasa, M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0323183
HRM Challenges and Employee Wellbeing in the Tourism Industry
Antony, N., & Thomas, J. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-0071-9.ch002
PEQUENO NO TAMANHO, GRANDE NO SERVIÇO? UMA ANÁLISE SERVPERF EM SUPERMERCADO LOCAL COM APOIO DO MDS
ANUNCIATO, K. M., & DOURADO, J. F. L. (2025) · Revista Multidisciplinar do Nordeste Mineiro · doi:10.61164/rmnm.v11i1.4137
Chilipweli, P. M., Mwambope, G., Abdallah, A. O., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Translational Medical Research and Public Health · doi:10.25259/ijtmrph_84_2024
Walugembe, F., Le, N. B. A., Patthanasak, K., et al. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.78925
Eikenberry, M. C., Scott, K., González, J., Subialka, J. A., Frankland, L., Ayala, P., (6366965), M. K., & Russell, B. (2025) · Journal of Physical Therapy Education · doi:10.1097/jte.0000000000000413
“51,52 In addition, this study was based on secondary data that included unveri fi ed self-reported demographic factors obtained from the PTCAS application.”
Encarnacion, M. J., Abun, D., Seggay, M. G., Apollo, E. P., Macaspac, L. G. R., & Nicolas, M. T. (2025) · Divine Word International Journal of Management and Humanities (DWIJMH) · doi:10.62025/dwijmh.v4i2.126
Jang, Y., Kwon, S. S., Yu, H., Lee, D., Yoon, J., Lee, C. W., Park, Y. S., Ryoo, H. A., Park, Y., Lee, H., et al. (2025) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2024.0247
Ghaffari, A., Graves, K. Y., Hogans-Mathews, S., Berne-Anderson, T., & Harman, J. S. (2025) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-025-10091-z · Cited by 1
“The main limitation of our study involves the use of cross-sectional data that limits the ability to establish causality coupled with being subject to non-response bias and recall bias (Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
Adams, I. K. R., Odei, J. B., Wright, K., Figueroa, W. S., Nickerson, M., Leson, S. M., Agboola, O., & Yildiz, V. O. (2025) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02519-1
“The use of a cross-sectional design and a convenience sampling strategy makes it difficult to make causal inferences and is susceptible to non-response and recall biases [74].”
Households’ expenditures for solid waste management services: Influencing factors and deep insight
Mustafa, G., Hayat, N., Alotaibi, B. A., et al. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0324085
“Thus, in the household level studies the researchers often prefer cross-sectional data over panel data [30].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Wang, X., & Cheng, Z.
- Affiliations
- Cleveland Clinic (US)
- Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Wang, Xiaofeng
- Venue
- CHEST
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 158
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- S65-S71
- ISSN
- 0012-3692 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3039445169
- Cited by
- 2,214
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 636 · 2025: 638 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 282 · 2022: 162 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 8
- FWCI
- 90.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- CHEST Journal (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Methodologies in Health Research and Practice
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Keywords
- cross-sectional study, observational study design, prevalence, health determinants, methodological issues, statistical analysis, respiratory medicine, intensive care, research design recommendations, peer review
- MeSH terms
- Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Guidelines as Topic
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