The DOI matches its Crossref record; 32 of the 32 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 2 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Cross-Sectional Studies
Open accessAbstract
Cross-sectional studies are observational studies that analyze data from a population at a single point in time. They are often used to measure the prevalence of health outcomes, understand determinants of health, and describe features of a population. Unlike other types of observational studies, cross-sectional studies do not follow individuals up over time. They are usually inexpensive and easy to conduct. They are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study. This article reviews the essential characteristics, describes strengths and weaknesses, discusses methodological issues, and gives our recommendations on design and statistical analysis for cross-sectional studies in pulmonary and critical care medicine. A list of considerations for reviewers is also provided.
Overview
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Claims the paper makes
11 Own interpretation · 1 Sources not found · 1 No full text of the sources
In the paper
“Prevalenceincidence bias (also called the Neyman bias) is also particularly common in cross-sectional studies.13”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Bias
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Tripepi, 2010, Selection bias and information bias in clinical research, Nephron Clin Pract source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They cannot be used to look at individual change (as in a cohort study).”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because the outcome and exposure variables are measured at the same time, it is relatively difficult to establish causal relationships from a cross-sectional study.”
- Also stated in: § Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
“The exposures and outcomes are measured simultaneously; therefore, it is difficult to determine whether the exposures preceded or followed the outcomes in an analytical cross-sectional study.”
- Also stated in: § Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > General Overview of Cross-Sectional Study Design
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, repeated cross-sectional studies can be used for analyzing population changes over time (also known as aggregate change over time).”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“If one wants to compare two prevalence rates in an analytical cross-sectional study, the commonly used sample size formula is the same as is used when designing a cohort study.6”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Sample Size Determination
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6] Fleiss, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike studies starting from a series of patients, cross-sectional studies often need to select a sample of subjects from a large and heterogeneous study population.Thus, they are susceptible to sampling bias.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The subjects are neither deliberately exposed nor treated; thus, there are seldom ethical difficulties.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
- It may state two separate claims as one. 3
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stepwise selection methods and P value-based criteria are discouraged due to overfitting and because they often allow too many parameters to be included, which reduces the generalizability of the model.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Confounding could result in a distortion of the association between exposure and outcome.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Confounding
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that the sample size in a descriptive study does not depend on statistical power because this concept only applies to statistical comparisons.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Sample Size Determination
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
- Also stated in: § 1. The study population and the research question. · plain
“Unable to measure the incidence”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § 1. The study population and the research question. · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only with full and transparent reporting of information on all aspects of a cross-sectional study can potential usefulness of its findings and risk of bias be adequately assessed.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because exposure and outcome are measured simultaneously in a cross-sectional study, prior knowledge of the condition might influence the ascertainment of the exposure or the outcome, which results in recall bias.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Bias
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are usually quick and inexpensive to conduct.
“They are usually inexpensive and easy to conduct.”
“The main strength of cross-sectional studies is that they are relatively quick and inexpensive to conduct.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are the best way to determine prevalence.
“They are the best way to determine the prevalence and can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.
“They are the best way to determine the prevalence and can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study.
“They are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are suitable for generating hypotheses and may provide information about the prevalence of outcomes and exposures that informs other study designs.
“They are suitable for generating hypotheses and may provide information about the prevalence of outcomes and exposures that informs other study designs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Using questionnaires to reach a large sample of the population of interest is relatively inexpensive but can result in low response rates.
“Using questionnaires to reach a large sample of the population of interest is relatively inexpensive but can result in low response rates.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Interviews are more expensive and time-consuming than using questionnaires, potentially limiting the sample size but leading to a higher response rate.
“Interviews are more expensive and time-consuming than using questionnaires, potentially limiting the sample size but leading to a higher response rate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies cannot study rare diseases.
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Probability sampling methods are more accurate and rigorous than nonprobability sampling methods.
“In general, probability sampling methods are preferred over nonprobability ones, as the former are considered to be more accurate and rigorous.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Nonresponse bias is usually encountered in cross-sectional survey studies with mailed questionnaires.
“A common type of selection bias is the nonresponse bias, which is usually encountered in crosssectional survey studies with mailed questionnaires.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recall bias and detection bias are two common information biases.
“Recall bias and detection bias are two common information biases.”
Citations
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“See Wang and Cheng (2020) for information on the strengths and weaknesses of cross-sectional research designs.”
Model Empirical Chapter—The University of Hong Kong
Jiang, J., & Fryer, L. K. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-0558-0_2
Jahja, N. E., Hikmah, Z., Putera, A. M., et al. (2024) · Folia Medica Indonesiana · doi:10.20473/fmi.v60i1.53175
Garbutt-Byers, C., & Holt, S. L. (2024) · The Veterinary Nurse · doi:10.12968/vetn.2024.15.3.121
Malik, S. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-85663-8.00018-0
Nyamekye, E., Zengulaaru, J., Sam, L., et al. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4800525
Qiao, X., Nie, H., Chen, Z., Xu, Z., Zhang, H., Taylor, A., Dieck, M. T., Bao, Y., & Shi, X. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4199318/v1
Trust Mediates The Factors That Influence Purchase Intention For Co-Branded Local Cosmetics
Fitri, A. M., & Lady, L. (2024) · BASKARA Journal of Business and Entrepreneurship · doi:10.54268/baskara.v6i2.20889
Farhan, Y., ISMAIL, I., & Razak, M. I. M. (2024) · Information Management and Business Review · doi:10.22610/imbr.v16i1(i)s.3673
Association between forced displacement and cigarette smoking among Colombian adolescents
Campo‐Arias, A., & Caballero‐Domínguez, C. C. (2024) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.1080/14659891.2024.2351014 · Cited by 1
“In addition, it is impossible to doubt the cause/effect direction in the variables usually present in cross-sectional studies (Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
Kemirembe, D., Katikiro, R. E., & Mbwana, M. (2024) · Discover Agriculture · doi:10.1007/s44279-024-00029-y
Vital Voices from the Digital Divide: Testimonies of African American Women Leadership Across Tech
Gray, V. (2024) · Digital USD (University of San Diego) · doi:10.22371/05.2024.013
Pineda-Roa, C. A., Campo‐Arias, A., & Herazo, E. (2024) · Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría · doi:10.1016/j.rcp.2024.04.004
de Oliveira, L. F. N., Nogueira, M. D. D. A., Rolim, L. R., de Matos, R. S., Bezerra, I. N., Maia, C. S. C., & Loureiro, A. C. C. (2024) · Nutrivisa Revista de Nutrição e Vigilância em Saúde · doi:10.59171/nutrivisa-2024v11e12998
Sari, S. K. (2023) · Coping Community of Publishing in Nursing · doi:10.24843/coping.2023.v11.i04.p13
Akram, W., Fadhil, A., & Nori, W. (2024) · Al-Rafidain Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.54133/ajms.v6i2.934
Teachers’ understanding and enhancement of learning for sustainability in Mauritian primary schools.
Hinchoo, T. S. (2022) · ResearchSpace (University of KwaZulu-Natal) · doi:10.29086/10413/23072
The Influence of Work-Family Organizational Support to Eudaimonic Well-Being in Policewoman
Azzahra, T. C., & Yuniardi, M. S. (2024) · Scientia · doi:10.51773/sssh.v3i1.262
Ssali, F. P. (2023) · DUT Open Scholar (Durban University of Technology) · doi:10.51415/10321/5311
Arrum, D. N. A., Tomoliyus, T., Alim, A., et al. (2024) · Physical Education Theory and Methodology · doi:10.17309/tmfv.2024.3.10
“This research is a cross-sectional that examines data collected at a single time point (Capili, Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
BackgroundE-HRM Practices and Public Value Creation. A Case of County Government in Kenya
Kamau, G. M., & Mwangi, G. (2024) · IST-Africa Conference (IST-Africa) · doi:10.23919/ist-africa63983.2024.10569453
“The approach provides valuable insights into associations between variables [20].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHouf, H. A., Gill, S., Conlon, J., et al. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4883722
Fava, G. (2024) · Journal of Voice · doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2024.06.022
Takyi, G., Enu‐Kwesi, F., & Dinye, R. D. (2024) · International Social Science Journal · doi:10.1111/issj.12526
dos Santos, C. W. S., Araújo, R. A. D. S., Ramos, A. S., et al. (2024) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v13i7.45791
Moraes, A., Nagafuchi, A. G., Testa, R. G., et al. (2024) · Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.17921/2447-8938.2024v26n2p100-105
Yan, L., & Khairani, A. Z. (2024) · International Journal of Religion · doi:10.61707/jreqc308
Rismayanti, T., Latipah, I., Jawahir, I., et al. (2024) · Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA · doi:10.29303/jppipa.v10i7.8282
“Ultimately, this research endeavors to contribute to the global effort in combating HIV/AIDS, ensuring better health outcomes and quality of life for affected individuals and communities in Tangerang Regency and beyond (Poirier et al., 2015; Thurman et al., 2020; Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
BackgroundPurbowati, W., Suryaningsih, Y., & Dewi, S. R. (2024) · ASSYIFA Jurnal Ilmu Kesehatan · doi:10.62085/ajk.v2i2.84
Fatores motivacionais para a prática de exercício físico em contexto de Health Club
Sena, N., Azevedo, A. M., Eira, P., & Vasconcelos, C. E. G. D. C. (2024) · Retos · doi:10.47197/retos.v59.105305
Cardiovascular Risk Factors as Predictors of Nutritional Status in Older Mexican Adults
Hernández-Torres, D. A., López-Hernández, M. E., Camacho-Moll, M. E., de León, M. B., Peñuelas-Urquides, K., González-Escalante, L. A., González-Reyna, R., García-Leija, D. L., & Escobedo-Guajardo, B. L. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16162662
TOKSİK LİDERLİĞİN AKADEMİK HAYATTAKİ KARANLIK SERÜVENİ
ÇİÇEK, B., & Bilkay, S. (2024) · Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.18070/erciyesiibd.1322748
Mental Health Diagnoses in People Experiencing Homelessness—Reply
Barry, R., & Seitz, D. P. (2024) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.2318
Mengukur Psychological Well-Being: Peran Body Image dan Gratitude Pada Wanita Dewasa Awal
Fitri, A., & Ibrahim, F. R. I. (2024) · G-Couns Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling · doi:10.31316/gcouns.v9i1.6485
Raghuwanshi, A., Rafat, S., & Srivastav, A. K. (2024) · Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.2340/jrm.v56.41133
“This methodological choice may weaken the generalizability of the study findings (2) While the AB/BA crossover design employed in this study mitigates individual differences and potentially reduces bias (3), the lack of correction for the multiple comparisons and potential learning effects from…”
ResultTagoe, C. E., Wang, W., & Kwon, H. H. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1445188
“The use of a population-based sample to study any disease association could suffer from sampling bias and type II error if the frequency of the association is hampered by the sample size (30).”
MethodChiquillo, A. M. B., Bocanegra, K. Y. M., & Rojas, D. H. (2024) · Cities & Health · doi:10.1080/23748834.2024.2390272
Metadata
- Authors
- Wang, X., & Cheng, Z.
- Affiliations
- Cleveland Clinic (US)
- Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Wang, Xiaofeng
- Venue
- CHEST
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 158
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- S65-S71
- ISSN
- 0012-3692 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3039445169
- Cited by
- 2,214
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 636 · 2025: 638 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 282 · 2022: 162 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 8
- FWCI
- 90.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- CHEST Journal (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Methodologies in Health Research and Practice
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Keywords
- cross-sectional study, observational study design, prevalence, health determinants, methodological issues, statistical analysis, respiratory medicine, intensive care, research design recommendations, peer review
- MeSH terms
- Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Guidelines as Topic
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