Defective HIV-1 proviruses are expressed and can Be recognized by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which shape the proviral landscape
Open accessAbstract
Despite antiretroviral therapy, HIV-1 persists in memory CD4+ T cells, creating a barrier to cure. The majority of HIV-1 proviruses are defective and considered clinically irrelevant. Using cells from HIV-1-infected individuals and reconstructed patient-derived defective proviruses, we show that defective proviruses can be transcribed into RNAs that are spliced and translated. Proviruses with defective major splice donors (MSDs) can activate novel splice sites to produce HIV-1 transcripts, and cells with these proviruses can be recognized by HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Further, cells with proviruses containing lethal mutations upstream of CTL epitopes can also be recognized by CTLs, potentially through aberrant translation. Thus, CTLs may change the landscape of HIV-1 proviruses by preferentially targeting cells with specific types of defective proviruses. Additionally, the expression of defective proviruses will need to be considered in the measurement of HIV-1 latency reversal.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A multitude of studies showed that defective HIV-1 genomes inside cells may still produce individual viral transcripts or proteins, which could be mistaken as indicators of a functional reservoir of infectious virus.
“Conversely, a multitude of studies showed that defective HIV-1 genomes inside cells may still produce individual viral transcripts or proteins, 33-35,55 which could be mistaken as indicators of a functional reservoir of infectious virus.”
From Revealing viral and cellular dynamics of HIV-1 at the single-cell level during early treatment periods (2023) · cites this paper as [33]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Siliciano, J. D., Kajdas, J., Finzi, D., Quinn, T. C., Chadwick, K., Margolick, J. B., Kovacs, C., Gange, S. J., & Siliciano, R. F. (2003) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm880 · Cited by 1,703 · see citing works
Self-citationUpregulation of PD-1 expression on HIV-specific CD8+ T cells leads to reversible immune dysfunction
Trautmann, L., Janbazian, L., Chomont, N., Said, E. A., Gimmig, S., Bessette, B., Boulassel, M.-R., Delwart, E., Sepulveda, H., Balderas, R. S., et al. (2006) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm1482 · Cited by 1,565 · see citing works
PD-1 is a regulator of virus-specific CD8+ T cell survival in HIV infection
Petrovas, C., Casazza, J. P., Brenchley, J. M., Price, D. A., Gostick, E., Adams, W. C., Precopio, M. L., Schacker, T., Roederer, M., Douek, D. C., et al. (2006) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20061496 · Cited by 889 · see citing works
Defective proviruses rapidly accumulate during acute HIV-1 infection
Bruner, K. M., Murray, A. J., Pollack, R. A., Soliman, M. G., Laskey, S. B., Capoferri, A. A., Lai, J., Strain, M. C., Lada, S. M., Hoh, R., et al. (2016) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.4156 · Cited by 737 · see citing works
Self-citationMalarkannan, S., Horng, T., Shih, P. P., Schwab, S., & Shastri, N. (1999) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/s1074-7613(00)80067-9 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 67
- Archin NM Liberty AL Kashuba AD Choudhary SK Kuruc JD Crooks AM Parker DC Anderson EM Kearney MF Strain MC 2012 Administration of vorinostat disrupts HIV-1 latency in patients on antiretroviral therapy Nature 487 482 485 22837004 PMC3704185
- Bansal A Carlson J Yan J Akinsiku OT Schaefer M Sabbaj S Bet A Levy DN Heath S Tang J 2010 CD8 T cell response and evolutionary pressure to HIV-1 cryptic epitopes derived from antisense transcription J Exp Med 207 51 59 20065064 PMC2812545
- Barton K Hiener B Winckelmann A Rasmussen TA Shao W Byth K Lanfear R Solomon A McMahon J Harrington S 2016 Broad activation of latent HIV-1 in vivo Nat Commun 7 12731 27605062 PMC5025526
- Besson GJ Lalama CM Bosch RJ Gandhi RT Bedison MA Aga E Riddler SA McMahon DK Hong F Mellors JW 2014 HIV-1 DNA decay dynamics in blood during more than a decade of suppressive antiretroviral therapy Clin Infect Dis 59 1312 1321 25073894 PMC4200019
- Bohnlein E Lowenthal JW Siekevitz M Ballard DW Franza BR Greene WC 1988 The same inducible nuclear proteins regulates mitogen activation of both the interleukin-2 receptor-alpha gene and type 1 HIV Cell 53 827 836 2836068
- Borducchi EN Cabral C Stephenson KE Liu J Abbink P Ng’ang’a D Nkolola JP Brinkman AL Peter L Lee BC 2016 Ad26/MVA therapeutic vaccination with TLR7 stimulation in SIV-infected rhesus monkeys Nature 540 284 287 27841870 PMC5145754
- Borrow P Lewicki H Hahn BH Shaw GM Oldstone MB 1994 Virus-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity associated with control of viremia in primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection J Virol 68 6103 6110 8057491 PMC237022
- Borrow P Lewicki H Wei X Horwitz MS Peffer N Meyers H Nelson JA Gairin JE Hahn BH Oldstone MB Shaw GM 1997 Antiviral pressure exerted by HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) during primary infection demonstrated by rapid selection of CTL escape virus Nat Med 3 205 211 9018240
- Bullock TN Eisenlohr LC 1996 Ribosomal scanning past the primary initiation codon as a mechanism for expression of CTL epitopes encoded in alternative reading frames J Exp Med 184 1319 1329 8879204 PMC2192835
- Cardinaud S Moris A Fevrier M Rohrlich PS Weiss L Langlade-Demoyen P Lemonnier FA Schwartz O Habel A 2004 Identification of cryptic MHC I-restricted epitopes encoded by HIV-1 alternative reading frames J Exp Med 199 1053 1063 15078897 PMC2211898
- Cartwright EK Spicer L Smith SA Lee D Fast R Paganini S Lawson BO Nega M Easley K Schmitz JE 2016 CD8(+) Lymphocytes Are Required for Maintaining Viral Suppression in SIV-Infected Macaques Treated with Short-Term Antiretroviral Therapy Immunity 45 656 668 27653601 PMC5087330
- Casartelli N Guivel-Benhassine F Bouziat R Brandler S Schwartz O Moris A 2010 The antiviral factor APOBEC3G improves CTL recognition of cultured HIV-infected T cells J Exp Med 207 39 49 20038599 PMC2812543
- Chang DD Sharp PA 1989 Regulation by HIV Rev depends upon recognition of splice sites Cell 59 789 795 2686839
- Chomont N El-Far M Ancuta P Trautmann L Procopio FA Yassine-Diab B Boucher G Boulassel MR Ghattas G Brenchley JM 2009 HIV reservoir size and persistence are driven by T cell survival and homeostatic proliferation Nat Med 15 893 900 19543283 PMC2859814
- Chun TW Stuyver L Mizell SB Ehler LA Mican JA Baseler M Lloyd AL Nowak MA Fauci AS 1997 Presence of an inducible HIV-1 latent reservoir during highly active antiretroviral therapy Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94 13193 13197 9371822 PMC24285
- Cillo AR Sobolewski MD Bosch RJ Fyne E Piatak M Jr Coffin JM Mellors JW 2014 Quantification of HIV-1 latency reversal in resting CD4+ T cells from patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111 7078 7083 24706775 PMC4024870
- Cohn LB Silva IT Oliveira TY Rosales RA Parrish EH Learn GH Hahn BH Czartoski JL McElrath MJ Lehmann C 2015 HIV-1 integration landscape during latent and active infection Cell 160 420 432 25635456 PMC4371550
- Coull JJ Romerio F Sun JM Volker JL Galvin KM Davie JR Shi Y Hansen U Margolis DM 2000 The human factors YY1 and LSF repress the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat via recruitment of histone deacetylase 1 J Virol 74 6790 6799 10888618 PMC112196
- Crooks AM Bateson R Cope AB Dahl NP Griggs MK Kuruc JD Gay CL Eron JJ Margolis DM Bosch RJ Archin NM 2015 Precise Quantitation of the Latent HIV-1 Reservoir: Implications for Eradication Strategies J Infect Dis 212 1361 1365 25877550 PMC4601910
- Day CL Kaufmann DE Kiepiela P Brown JA Moodley ES Reddy S Mackey EW Miller JD Leslie AJ DePierres C 2006 PD-1 expression on HIV-specific T cells is associated with T-cell exhaustion and disease progression Nature 443 350 354 16921384
- Deeks SG 2012 HIV: Shock and kill Nature 487 439 440 22836995
- Deng K Pertea M Rongvaux A Wang L Durand CM Ghiaur G Lai J McHugh HL Hao H Zhang H 2015 Broad CTL response is required to clear latent HIV-1 due to dominance of escape mutations Nature 517 381 385 25561180 PMC4406054
- Douek DC Brenchley JM Betts MR Ambrozak DR Hill BJ Okamoto Y Casazza JP Kuruppu J Kunstman K Wolinsky S 2002 HIV preferentially infects HIV-specific CD4+ T cells Nature 417 95 98 11986671
- Elliott JH Wightman F Solomon A Ghneim K Ahlers J Cameron MJ Smith MZ Spelman T McMahon J Velayudham P 2014 Activation of HIV Transcription with Short-Course Vorinostat in HIV-Infected Patients on Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy PLoS Pathog 10 e1004473 25393648 PMC4231123
- Elliott JH McMahon JH Chang CC Lee SA Hartogensis W Bumpus N Savic R Roney J Hoh R Solomon A 2015 Short-term administration of disulfiram for reversal of latent HIV infection: a phase 2 dose-escalation study Lancet HIV 2 e520 9 26614966 PMC5108570
- Eriksson S Graf EH Dahl V Strain MC Yukl SA Lysenko ES Bosch RJ Lai J Chioma S Emad F 2013 Comparative analysis of measures of viral reservoirs in HIV-1 eradication studies PLoS Pathog 9 e1003174 23459007 PMC3573107
- Feinberg MB Jarrett RF Aldovini A Gallo RC Wong-Staal F 1986 HTLV-III expression and production involve complex regulation at the levels of splicing and translation of viral RNA Cell 46 807 817 3638988
- Finzi D Hermankova M Pierson T Carruth LM Buck C Chaisson RE Quinn TC Chadwick K Margolick J Brookmeyer R 1997 Identification of a reservoir for HIV-1 in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy Science 278 1295 1300 9360927
- Fukazawa Y Lum R Okoye AA Park H Matsuda K Bae JY Hagen SI Shoemaker R Deleage C Lucero C 2015 B cell follicle sanctuary permits persistent productive simian immunodeficiency virus infection in elite controllers Nat Med 21 132 139 25599132 PMC4320022
- Goldwich A Hahn SS Schreiber S Meier S Kampgen E Wagner R Lutz MB Schubert U 2008 Targeting HIV-1 Gag into the defective ribosomal product pathway enhances MHC class I antigen presentation and CD8+ T cell activation J Immunol 180 372 382 18097038
- Guatelli JC Gingeras TR Richman DD 1990 Alternative splice acceptor utilization during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of cultured cells J Virol 64 4093 4098 2384914 PMC247871
- Hatano H Jain V Hunt PW Lee TH Sinclair E Do TD Hoh R Martin JN McCune JM Hecht F Busch MP Deeks SG 2013 Cell-based measures of viral persistence are associated with immune activation and programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)-expressing CD4+ T cells J Infect Dis 208 50 56 23089590 PMC3666131
- Ho O Green WR 2006 Cytolytic CD8+ T cells directed against a cryptic epitope derived from a retroviral alternative reading frame confer disease protection J Immunol 176 2470 2475 16456007
- Ho YC Shan L Hosmane NN Wang J Laskey SB Rosenbloom DI Lai J Blankson JN Siliciano JD Siliciano RF 2013 Replication-competent noninduced proviruses in the latent reservoir increase barrier to HIV-1 cure Cell 155 540 551 24243014 PMC3896327
- Imamichi H Dewar RL Adelsberger JW Rehm CA O’Doherty U Paxinos EE Fauci AS Lane HC 2016 Defective HIV-1 proviruses produce novel protein-coding RNA species in HIV-infected patients on combination antiretroviral therapy Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113 8783 8788 27432972 PMC4978246
- Jones KA Peterlin BM 1994 Control of RNA initiation and elongation at the HIV-1 promoter Annu Rev Biochem 63 717 743 7979253
- Jones RB Garrison KE Mujib S Mihajlovic V Aidarus N Hunter DV Martin E John VM Zhan W Faruk NF 2012 HERV-K-specific T cells eliminate diverse HIV-1/2 and SIV primary isolates J Clin Invest 122 4473 4489 23143309 PMC3533554
- Kauder SE Bosque A Lindqvist A Planelles V Verdin E 2009 Epigenetic regulation of HIV-1 latency by cytosine methylation PLoS Pathog 5 e1000495 19557157 PMC2695767
- Kearney MF Wiegand A Shao W Coffin JM Mellors JW Lederman M Gandhi RT Keele BF Li JZ 2015 Origin of Rebound Plasma HIV Includes Cells with Identical Proviruses That Are Transcriptionally Active before Stopping of Antiretroviral Therapy J Virol 90 1369 1376 26581989 PMC4719635
- Koup RA Safrit JT Cao Y Andrews CA McLeod G Borkowsky W Farthing C Ho DD 1994 Temporal association of cellular immune responses with the initial control of viremia in primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 syndrome J Virol 68 4650 4655 8207839 PMC236393
- Leth S Schleimann MH Nissen SK Hojen JF Olesen R Graversen ME Jorgensen S Kjaer AS Denton PW Mork A 2016 Combined effect of Vacc-4x, recombinant human granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor vaccination, and romidepsin on the HIV-1 reservoir (REDUC): a single-arm, phase 1B/2A trial Lancet HIV 3 e463 72 27658863
- Lever A Gottlinger H Haseltine W Sodroski J 1989 Identification of a sequence required for efficient packaging of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA into virions J Virol 63 4085 4087 2760989 PMC251012
- Maldarelli F Wu X Su L Simonetti FR Shao W Hill S Spindler J Ferris AL Mellors JW Kearney MF Coffin JM Hughes SH 2014 HIV latency. Specific HIV integration sites are linked to clonal expansion and persistence of infected cells Science 345 179 183 24968937 PMC4262401
- Malim MH Hauber J Le SY Maizel JV Cullen BR 1989 The HIV-1 rev trans-activator acts through a structured target sequence to activate nuclear export of unspliced viral mRNA Nature 338 254 257 2784194
- Maness NJ Wilson NA Reed JS Piaskowski SM Sacha JB Walsh AD Thoryk E Heidecker GJ Citron MP Liang X 2010 Robust, vaccine-induced CD8(+) T lymphocyte response against an out-of-frame epitope J Immunol 184 67 72 19949108 PMC2881682
- Massanella M Gianella S Lada SM Richman DD Strain MC 2015 Quantification of Total and 2-LTR (Long terminal repeat) HIV DNA, HIV RNA and Herpesvirus DNA in PBMCs Bio-Protocol 5 11 e1492 27478862 PMC4962884
- Ocwieja KE Sherrill-Mix S Mukherjee R Custers-Allen R David P Brown M Wang S Link DR Olson J Travers K Schadt E Bushman FD 2012 Dynamic regulation of HIV-1 mRNA populations analyzed by single-molecule enrichment and long-read sequencing Nucleic Acids Res 40 10345 10355 22923523 PMC3488221
- Procopio FA Fromentin R Kulpa DA Brehm JH Bebin AG Strain MC Richman DD O’Doherty U Palmer S Hecht FM 2015 A Novel Assay to Measure the Magnitude of the Inducible Viral Reservoir in HIV-infected Individuals EBioMedicine 2 872 881 PMC4563128 26425694
- Purcell DF Martin MA 1993 Alternative splicing of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 mRNA modulates viral protein expression, replication, and infectivity J Virol 67 6365 6378 8411338 PMC238071
- Rasmussen TA Tolstrup M Brinkmann CR Olesen R Erikstrup C Solomon A Winckelmann A Palmer S Dinarello C Buzon M 2014 Panobinostat, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, for latent-virus reactivation in HIV-infected patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy: a phase 1/2, single group, clinical trial The Lancet HIV 1 1 e13 e21 26423811
- Schick B Berke G 1979 Competitive inhibition of cytotoxic T lymphocyte-target cell conjugation. A direct evaluation of membrane antigens involved in cell-mediated immunity Transplantation 27 365 368 111379
- Schmitz JE Kuroda MJ Santra S Sasseville VG Simon MA Lifton MA Racz P Tenner-Racz K Dalesandro M Scallon BJ 1999 Control of viremia in simian immunodeficiency virus infection by CD8+ lymphocytes Science 283 857 860 9933172
- Schwartz S Felber BK Benko DM Fenyo EM Pavlakis GN 1990a Cloning and functional analysis of multiply spliced mRNA species of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 J Virol 64 2519 2529 2335812 PMC249427
- Schwartz S Felber BK Fenyo EM Pavlakis GN 1990b Env and Vpu proteins of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 are produced from multiple bicistronic mRNAs J Virol 64 5448 5456 2214021 PMC248596
- Shan L Deng K Shroff NS Durand CM Rabi SA Yang HC Zhang H Margolick JB Blankson JN Siliciano RF 2012 Stimulation of HIV-1-specific cytolytic T lymphocytes facilitates elimination of latent viral reservoir after virus reactivation Immunity 36 491 501 22406268 PMC3501645
- Shan L Rabi SA Laird GM Eisele E Zhang H Margolick JB Siliciano RF 2013 A novel PCR assay for quantification of HIV-1 RNA J Virol 87 6521 6525 23536672 PMC3648108
- Simonetti FR Sobolewski MD Fyne E Shao W Spindler J Hattori J Anderson EM Watters SA Hill S Wu X 2016 Clonally expanded CD4+ T cells can produce infectious HIV-1 in vivo Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113 1883 1888 26858442 PMC4763755
- Sogaard OS Graversen ME Leth S Olesen R Brinkmann CR Nissen SK Kjaer AS Schleimann MH Denton PW Hey-Cunningham WJ 2015 The Depsipeptide Romidepsin Reverses HIV-1 Latency In Vivo PLoS Pathog 11 e1005142 26379282 PMC4575032
- Starck SR Jiang V Pavon-Eternod M Prasad S McCarthy B Pan T Shastri N 2012 Leucine-tRNA initiates at CUG start codons for protein synthesis and presentation by MHC class I Science 336 1719 1723 22745432
- Tyagi M Pearson RJ Karn J 2010 Establishment of HIV latency in primary CD4+ cells is due to epigenetic transcriptional silencing and P-TEFb restriction J Virol 84 6425 6437 20410271 PMC2903277
- Van Lint C Emiliani S Ott M Verdin E 1996 Transcriptional activation and chromatin remodeling of the HIV-1 promoter in response to histone acetylation EMBO J 15 1112 1120 8605881 PMC450009
- Wagner TA McLaughlin S Garg K Cheung CY Larsen BB Styrchak S Huang HC Edlefsen PT Mullins JI Frenkel LM 2014 HIV latency. Proliferation of cells with HIV integrated into cancer genes contributes to persistent infection Science 345 570 573 25011556 PMC4230336
- Walker BD Chakrabarti S Moss B Paradis TJ Flynn T Durno AG Blumberg RS Kaplan JC Hirsch MS Schooley RT 1987 HIV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in seropositive individuals Nature 328 345 348 3496541
- Weinberger LS Burnett JC Toettcher JE Arkin AP Schaffer DV 2005 Stochastic gene expression in a lentiviral positive-feedback loop: HIV-1 Tat fluctuations drive phenotypic diversity Cell 122 169 182 16051143
- West MJ Lowe AD Karn J 2001 Activation of human immunodeficiency virus transcription in T cells revisited: NF-kappaB p65 stimulates transcriptional elongation J Virol 75 8524 8537 11507198 PMC115098
- Wong JK Hezareh M Gunthard HF Havlir DV Ignacio CC Spina CA Richman DD 1997 Recovery of replication-competent HIV despite prolonged suppression of plasma viremia Science 278 1291 1295 9360926
- Yewdell JW Anton LC Bennink JR 1996 Defective ribosomal products (DRiPs): a major source of antigenic peptides for MHC class I molecules? J Immunol 157 1823 1826 8757297
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Parallel analysis of transcription, integration, and sequence of single HIV-1 proviruses
Einkauf, K. B., Osborn, M. R., Gao, C., Sun, W., Sun, X., Lian, X., Parsons, E. M., Gladkov, G. T., Seiger, K. W., Blackmer, J. E., et al. (2022) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.12.011 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Defective HIV-1 proviruses produce viral proteins
Imamichi, H., Smith, M., Adelsberger, J. W., Izumi, T., Scrimieri, F., Sherman, B. T., Rehm, C. A., Imamichi, T., Pau, A., Catalfamo, M., et al. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1917876117 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Abrahams, M.-R., Joseph, S. B., Garrett, N., Tyers, L., Moeser, M., Archin, N., Council, O. D., Matten, D., Zhou, S., Doolabh, D., et al. (2019) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaw5589 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Vellas, C., Nayrac, M., Collercandy, N., Requena, M., Jeanne, N., Latour, J., Dimeglio, C., Cazabat, M., Barange, K., Alric, L., et al. (2024) · eBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104954 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Su, H., Mueller, A., & Goldstein, H. (2024) · Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS · doi:10.1097/coh.0000000000000858 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Otte, F., Zhang, Y., Spagnuolo, J., Thielen, A., Däumer, M., Wiethe, C., Stoeckle, M., Kusejko, K., Klein, F., Metzner, K. J., et al. (2023) · Cell Reports Methods · doi:10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100485 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
- Authors
- Pollack, R. A., Jones, R. B., Pertea, M., Bruner, K. M., Martin, A. R., Thomas, A. S., Capoferri, A. A., Beg, S. A., Huang, S.-H., Karandish, S., Hao, H., Halper-Stromberg, E., Yong, P. C., Kovacs, C., Benko, E., Siliciano, R. F., & Ho, Y.-C.
- Affiliations
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- George Washington University (US)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Maple Leaf Medical Clinic (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Ho, Ya-Chi
- ORCID
- Venue
- Cell Host & Microbe
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-04
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 494-506.e4
- ISSN
- 1931-3128 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5433942
- OpenAlex
- W2605860823
- Cited by
- 370
- References
- 5
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 20.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (vor, 376 d)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
- Locations
- Cell Host & Microbe (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- NIH (1R21AI118402-01, AI096113, 1U19AI096109, 1UM1AI126617)
- CARE
- DARE
- BELIEVE
- American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR108165-50-RGRL)
- amfAR (amfAR109315-57-RGRL)
- Johns Hopkins Center for AIDS Research
- CFAR (P30AI094189)
- DC-CFAR (P30AI087714)
- W.W. Smith Charitable Trust
- Gilead Sciences
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Virology › HIV Research and Treatment
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Virus-based gene therapy research
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and Retrovirus Studies
- Keywords
- alternative splicing, HIV-1 transcription, CTL epitopes, HIV-1 latency, latency reversal, HIV-1 cure
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Proviruses, T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic, Genetic Variation, HIV-1, HIV Infections
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
