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Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research
Open accessAbstract
This article is based on a consensus conference, which took place in Certosa di Pontignano, Siena (Italy) on March 7-9, 2008, intended to update the previous safety guidelines for the application of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in research and clinical settings. Over the past decade the scientific and medical community has had the opportunity to evaluate the safety record of research studies and clinical applications of TMS and repetitive TMS (rTMS). In these years the number of applications of conventional TMS has grown impressively, new paradigms of stimulation have been developed (e.g., patterned repetitive TMS) and technical advances have led to new device designs and to the real-time integration of TMS with electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Thousands of healthy subjects and patients with various neurological and psychiatric diseases have undergone TMS allowing a better assessment of relative risks. The occurrence of seizures (i.e., the most serious TMS-related acute adverse effect) has been extremely rare, with most of the few new cases receiving rTMS exceeding previous guidelines, often in patients under treatment with drugs which potentially lower the seizure threshold. The present updated guidelines review issues of risk and safety of conventional TMS protocols, address the undesired effects and risks of emerging TMS interventions, the applications of TMS in patients with implanted electrodes in the central nervous system, and safety aspects of TMS in neuroimaging environments. We cover recommended limits of stimulation parameters and other important precautions, monitoring of subjects, expertise of the rTMS team, and ethical issues. While all the recommendations here are expert based, they utilize published data to the extent possible.
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“An eight-second delay was enforced between the two pulses to remain within the strictest safety guidelines of TMS stimulation29.”
From BrainNet: A Multi-Person Brain-to-Brain Interface for Direct Collaboration Between Brains (2019) · cites this paper as [29]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“The cTBS intensity was set to 80% of each participant’s active motor threshold, a conservative value chosen to minimize stimulation spread from the target region.”
From Two prefrontal-subcortical circuits estimate controllability and reflect its impact on learning (2026) · cites this paper as [88]
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“The rTMS parameters were well within currently recommended guidelines (Rossi et al., 2009), resulting in an estimated modification of DLPFc perfusion for 14 min (Eisenegger et al., 2008) and in a reduction of excitability of the targeted cortical region for several minutes following completion of the rTMS train (Maeda et al., 2000).”
From Disrupting the right prefrontal cortex alters moral judgement (2012) · cites this paper as Rossi et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“Treatment is usually well tolerated and presents no serious side effects. The most common side effects reported are transient headaches and local pain.”
From The Insula: A Brain Stimulation Target for the Treatment of Addiction (2019) · cites this paper as Rossi et al., 2009
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“More serious side effects, most notably seizures, are extremely rare and are unlikely when the proper safety guidelines are followed”
From The Insula: A Brain Stimulation Target for the Treatment of Addiction (2019) · cites this paper as Rossi et al., 2009
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Comparisons of event-related potentials after repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
Jing, H., Takigawa, M., Okamura, H., Doi, W., & Fukuzako, H. (2001) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s004150170224 · Cited by 20
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Seizure or convulsive syncope during 1-Hz rTMS?
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Seizure induced by fast repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
Bernabeu, M., Orient, F., Tormos, J. M., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2004) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2004.02.021 · Cited by 18
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Self-citationHigher cognitive functions: memory and reasoning
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Self-citationMelgari, J.-M., Vernieri, F., Maggio, P., Tibuzzi, F., Filippi, M. M., Pasqualetti, P., Palazzo, P., Altamura, C., Giorgio, M. D., & Rossini, P. M. (2008) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(08)60341-7 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 313 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Theoret, 2003, Exploring paradoxical functional facilitation with TMS, Clin Neurophysiol, 56, 211
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Rossini, P., Burke, D. F., Chen, R., Cohen, L., Daskalakis, Z., Iorio, R. D., di Lazzaro, V., Ferreri, F., Fitzgerald, P., George, M., et al. (2015) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2015.02.001 · Cited by 2,729
Self-citationLefaucheur, J.-P., André-Obadia, N., Antal, A., Ayache, S. S., Baeken, C., Benninger, D. H., Cantello, R. M., Cincotta, M., de Carvalho, M., De Ridder, D., et al. (2014) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2014.05.021 · Cited by 2,119
Self-citationRossi, S., Antal, A., Bestmann, S., Bikson, M., Brewer, C., Brockmöller, J., Carpenter, L. L., Cincotta, M., Chen, R., Daskalakis, J. D., et al. (2021) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2020.10.003 · Cited by 1,573
Self-citationSafety of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: Evidence Based Update 2016
Bikson, M., Grossman, P., Thomas, C., Zannou, A. L., Jiang, J., Adnan, T., Mourdoukoutas, A. P., Kronberg, G., Truong, D. Q., Boggio, P. S., et al. (2016) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2016.06.004 · Cited by 1,420
Blumberger, D. M., Vila-Rodriguez, F., Thorpe, K. E., Feffer, K., Noda, Y., Giacobbe, P., Knyahnytska, Y., Kennedy, S. H., Lam, R. W., Daskalakis, Z. J., et al. (2018) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(18)30295-2 · Cited by 1,363
Metadata
- Authors
- Rossi, S., Hallett, M., Rossini, P. M., & Pascual-Leone, A.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Università Campus Bio-Medico (IT)
- Venue
- Clinical Neurophysiology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-12
- Volume
- 120
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 2008-2039
- ISSN
- 1388-2457 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3260536
- OpenAlex
- W2156092714
- Cited by
- 5,367
- References
- 313
- Citations by year
- 2026: 211 · 2025: 305 · 2024: 346 · 2023: 318 · 2022: 358 · 2021: 409 · 2020: 447 · 2019: 439 · 2018: 397 · 2017: 350 · 2016: 345 · 2015: 324 · 2014: 310 · 2013: 277 · 2012: 239
- FWCI
- 111.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Clinical Neurophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Institutional Research Information System (Università degli Studi di Trento) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Institutional Research Information System (Università degli Studi di Brescia) (submittedVersion)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion)
- Use Siena air (University of Siena) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Università degli Studi di Siena
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/F02424X/1)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
- National Center for Research Resources (K24RR018875)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Electroconvulsive Therapy Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
- Keywords
- transcranial magnetic stimulation, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, TMS safety, seizure risk, stimulation parameters, implanted electrodes
- MeSH terms
- Hot Temperature, Humans, Italy, Nervous System Diseases, Risk Factors, Practice Guidelines as Topic, Biomedical Research, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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