From the testing to the deployment of self-driving cars: Legal challenges to policymakers on the road ahead
Open accessAbstract
Self-driving cars and self-driving technology are tested on public roads in several countries on a large scale. With this development not only technical, but also legal questions arise. This article will give a brief overview of the legal developments in multiple jurisdictions – California (USA), United Kingdom, and the Netherlands – and will highlight several legal questions regarding the testing and deployment of self-driving cars. Policymakers are confronted with the question how the testing of self-driving cars can be regulated. The discussed jurisdictions all choose a different approach. Different legal instruments – binding regulation, non-binding regulation, granting exemptions – are used to regulate the testing of self-driving cars. Are these instruments suitable for the objectives the jurisdictions want to achieve? As technology matures, self-driving cars will at some point become available to the general public. Regarding this post-testing phase, two pressing problems arise: how to deal with the absence of a human driver and how does this affect liability and insurance? The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic 1968 and the Geneva Convention on Road Traffic 1949, as well as national traffic laws, are based on the notion that only a human can drive a car. To what extent a different interpretation of the term ‘driver’ in traffic laws and international Conventions can accommodate the deployment of self-driving cars without a human driver present will be discussed in this article. When the self-driving car becomes reality, current liability regimes can fall short. Liability for car accidents might shift from the driver or owner to the manufacturer of the car. This could have a negative effect on the development of self-driving cars. In this context, it will also be discussed to what extent insurance can affect this development.
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The Dutch law intended to hold the possessor of AV liable for development risks as they cannot invoke the defense that can be called on by the manufacturer.
“The Dutch law intended to hold the possessor of AV liable for development risks as they cannot invoke the defense that can be called on by the manufacturer”
From Understanding autonomous vehicles: A systematic literature review on capability, impact, planning and policy (2019) · cites this paper as Vellinga, 2017
Section 7.1 (page not available in our copy) reports a concern that the manufacturer may be able to invoke the state-of-the-art defense while the possessor cannot, in which case the possessor would be strictly liable for development risks. It presents this as a possibility, not as an established rule or an intention of Dutch law. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAnother significant concern focuses on how to maintain legal consistency in different jurisdictions to avoid confrontation with AV manufacturers and to encourage innovation.
“Another significant concern focuses on how to maintain legal consistency in different jurisdictions to avoid confrontation with AV manufacturers and to encourage innovation”
From Understanding autonomous vehicles: A systematic literature review on capability, impact, planning and policy (2019) · cites this paper as Vellinga, 2017
Both the 'binding regulations' and 'exemption under conditions' are legally binding for manufacturers to ensure safety during testing.
“Both the 'binding regulations' and 'exemption under conditions' are legally binding for manufacturers to ensure safety during testing”
From Understanding autonomous vehicles: A systematic literature review on capability, impact, planning and policy (2019) · cites this paper as Vellinga, 2017
If the liability of human driver or owner of the car would shift to manufacturer in case of collision, this might slow down the progress of AV development.
“If the liability of human driver or owner of the car would shift to manufacturer in case of collision, this might slow down the progress of AV development”
From Understanding autonomous vehicles: A systematic literature review on capability, impact, planning and policy (2019) · cites this paper as Vellinga, 2017
Regulating bodies and practiced legal instruments used by these bodies are different from each other; some authorities follow 'binding regulation,' some follow 'non-binding regulation,' and some other follow 'granting exemption'.
“Regulating bodies and practiced legal instruments used by these bodies are also different from each other. Some authorities follow 'binding regulation,' some follow 'non-binding regulation,' and some other follow 'granting exemption'”
From Understanding autonomous vehicles: A systematic literature review on capability, impact, planning and policy (2019) · cites this paper as Vellinga, 2017
In the US, states are responsible for liability regimes and insurance.
“In the US, states are responsible for liability regimes and insurance”
From Understanding autonomous vehicles: A systematic literature review on capability, impact, planning and policy (2019) · cites this paper as Vellinga, 2017
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- Surden and Williams advice design regulations to be broadly stated at a high level of abstraction as the technological develop- ments are difficult to predict: Harry Surden and Mary-Anne Williams, 'Self-Driving Cars, Predictability, and Law' (2016) 38 Cardozo Law Review 121, 174-78. See also Bryant W Smith, 'How Govern- ments Can Promote Automated Driving' (2016) New Mexico Law Review (forthcoming), available at <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/ papers.cfm?abstract_id=2749375> accessed March 2016, 38-39. The Governors Highway Safety Association urges states not to rush with legislation for self-driving vehicles as it could hinder the devel- opment of self-driving vehicles and may be soon out of date: James Hedlund, Autonomous Vehicles Meet Human Drivers: Traffic Safety Issues for States (Governors Highway Safety Association) available at <http://src.bna.com/lVf> accessed 10 February 2017.
- Smith also acknowledges the flexibility exemptions can offer: Bryant W Smith, 'How Governments Can Promote Automated Driving' (2016) New Mexico Law Review (forthcoming), available at Fahrerassistenzsysteme nach dem Wiener Übereinkommen über den Straßenverkehr' [2014] Neue Zeitschrift für Verkehrsrecht 67. 104 See for instance Lennart S. Lutz, 'Die bevorstehende Änderung des Wiener Übereinkommens über den Straßenverkehr: Eine Hürde auf dem Weg zu (teil-) autonomen Fahrzeugen ist genommen!' [2014] Deutsches Autorecht 446, 447-48. See also Walter Frenz and Erika Casimir-van den Broek, 'Völkerrechtliche Zulässigkeit von Fahrerassistenzsystemen' [2009] Neue Zeitschrift für Verkehrsrecht 529, Frank Albrecht,'"Fährt der Fahrer oder das System?"- Anmerkungen aus rechtlicher Sicht' [2005] Straßenverkehrsrecht 373. 105 ECE/TRANS/WP.1/2014/4, ECE/TRANS/WP.1/2014/4/Rev. 1. 106 The reason for this probably lies in the higher threshold for ac- cepting amendments to the Geneva Convention (see Economic Commission for Europe, Inland Transport Committee, Seventy- third session, Automated Driving, Informal document No. 2, submitted by the WP.1 Chair, 11 July 2016), Article 31 paragraph 3
- Geneva Convention, see for the procedure to amend the Vienna Convention Article 49 of the Vienna Convention. 107 ECE/TRANS/WP.1/2014/3, ECE/TRANS/WP.1/145 and ECE/TRANS/ WP.1/145/Corr. 1, announcement available at <https://treaties.un.org/ doc/Publication/CN/2014/CN.569.2014-Eng.pdf> accessed 7 December 2016. 108 ECE/TRANS/WP.1/2014/3, ECE/TRANS/WP.1/145, 11 under 2 and 3. 109 ECE/TRANS/WP.1/2014/3, ECE/TRANS/WP.1/145, 11 under 4 and
- See also Economic Commission for Europe, Inland Transport Committee, Seventieth session, Autono- mous Driving, Informal document No. 2, 12 March 2015. See for an analysis of the proposed amendment Benjamin von Bodungen, Martin Hoffmann, 'Belgien und Schweden schlagen vor: Das Fahrsystem soll Fahrer werden!' [2015] Neue Zeitschrift für Verkehrsrecht 521. 115 Economic Commission for Europe, Inland Transport Commit- tee, Seventy-third session, Automated Driving, Informal document No. 4, 14 September 2016, Economic Commission for Europe, Inland Transport Committee, Seventy-fourth session, Automated Driving, Informal document No. 2, 14 March 2017 and ECE/TRANS/WP.1/ 156. See on the interpretation of Article 8 of both Conventions: Bryant W Smith, 'Automated Vehicles Are Probably Legal in the United States' (2014) 1 Tex. A&M L. Rev. 411. See also European Par- liament resolution of 16 February 2017 with recommendations to the Commission on Civil Law Rules on Robotics (2015/2103(INL)), section 61-62. 116 Art. 60(c) Annex 5, Vienna Convention. 117 Kiliaan APC van Wees, 'Zelfrijdende auto's en het Verdrag van Wenen inzake het wegverkeer. Een verkennende analyse,' Amsterdam Centre for Comprehensive Law, Vrije Universiteit Am- sterdam, March 2015, para 4.8, available at <http://knowledgeagenda .connekt.nl/bibliotheek/>, Walter Frenz and Erika Casimir-van den Broek, 'Völkerrechtliche Zulässigkeit von Fahrerassistenzsystemen' [2009] Neue Zeitschrift für Verkehrsrecht 529. 118 'Reacties op de internetconsultatie Experimenteerwet zelfrijdende auto,' available at <www.internetconsultatie.nl/experimenteerwet _zelfrijdendeauto> accessed 12 January 2017. 119 This being said, California is not the first state with legisla- tion enabling the testing of self-driving vehicles without a test driver inside the vehicle. In Michigan, it is now allowed to test self- driving cars without a human driver and without steering equipment like a steering wheel and brake paddle (Senate Bill 995, 996, 997, 998, Senate Journal Number 77, 13 December 2016). Even though there is some discussion on how to interpret this legisla- tion, it is clear that this is allowed (see for instance Kristen Korosec, 'Michigan Just Passed the Most Permissive Self-Driving Car Laws in the Country' (Fortune, 9 December 2016) <http://fortune.com/ 2016/12/09/michigan-self-driving-cars/> accessed 21 December 2016, 128 §228.06 (a)(9) Autonomous Vehicles Express Terms. 129 Initial Statement of Reasons, March 2017, available at https:// www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/dmv/detail/vr/autonomous/auto. See also §228.08 Autonomous Vehicles Express Terms. 130 Department for Transport, 'The Pathway to Driverless Cars: A detailed review of regulations for automated vehicle technolo- gies,' 2015(Review of regulations 2015). 131 Review of regulations 2015. 132 Review of regulations 2015, para 5.15. See also para 5.12-5.14, 5.18, 10.
- Because trials need to be in line with existing laws, a driver needs to be present. 133 Definition of test operator: "A test operator is someone who over- sees testing of an automated vehicle without necessarily being seated in the vehicle, since some automated vehicles might not have conventional manual controls and/or a driver's seat. In this case it is expected that a 'test operator' would still be able to over- ride automated operation of the vehicle at any time." Code of Practice for testing 2015, para 2.11. 134 Code of Practice for testing 2015, para 4.1. See also para 2.10- 2.11, 4.3, 4.15, 5.17, Review of regulations 2015, para 5.15. 135 Code of Practice for testing 2015, para 4.2. See also Review of regulations 2015, para 5.13-5.14. 136 Centre for Connected & Autonomous Vehicles, 'Pathway to Driv- erless Cars: Proposals to support advanced driver assistance systems and automated vehicle technologies,' July 2016, p. 8 and para 3, Centre for Connected & Autonomous Vehicles, 'Pathway to Driv- erless Cars: Consultation on proposals to support Advanced Driver Assistance Systems and Automated Vehicles, Government Re- sponse,' January 2017. 137
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- See also Kiliaan APC van Wees, 'Aansprakelijheidsaspecten van (deels) zelfrijdende auto's' (2015) (5) Aansprakelijkheid, Verzekering & Schade 170. 159 Cees van Dam, European Tort Law (Oxford University Press, 2013). 160 Roderick Bagshaw, 'The development of traffic liability in England and Wales,' in Wolfgang Ernst (ed), The development of traffic liabil- ity (Volume 5, Cambridge University Press, 2010). 161 Centre for Connected & Autonomous Vehicles, 'Pathway to Driv- erless Cars: Proposals to support advanced driver assistance systems and automated vehicle technologies,' July 2016 (Proposals 2016). 162 Proposals 2016, 8. See also Proposals 2016, 16. 163 Centre for Connected & Autonomous Vehicles, 'Pathway to Driv- erless Cars: Consultation on proposals to support Advanced Driver Assistance Systems and Automated Vehicles, Government Re- sponse,' January 2017 (Government Response 2017). 164 The Bill is available at <www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ bills/cbill/2016-2017/0143/cbill_2016-20170143_en_2.htm> accessed 12 April 2017. 165 Proposals 2016, para 2.34-2.39. 166 Proposals 2016, para 2.20. See also para 2.21-2.
- See also Review of regulations 2015, ch13 on insurance. 169 Vehicle Technology and Aviation Bill HC Bill (2016-17) [143] cl
- Smith points out the important role of insurance companies in establishing the safety and desirability of self-driving vehicles: Bryant W Smith, 'How Gov- ernments Can Promote Automated Driving' (2016) New Mexico Law Review (forthcoming), available at <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/ papers.cfm?abstract_id=2749375> accessed March 2016. 170 Vehicle Technology and Aviation Bill HC Bill (2016-17) [143] cl 2
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“If the liability of human driver or owner of the car would shift to manufacturer in case of collision, this might slow down the progress of AV development (Vellinga, 2017).”
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- Authors
- Vellinga, N. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Groningen (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Vellinga, Nynke E.
- ORCID
- Vellinga, Nynke E.
- Venue
- Computer Law & Security Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-12
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 847-863
- ISSN
- 2212-473X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2620950722
- Cited by
- 67
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 107.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Computer law & security review (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Law › Digitalization, Law, and Regulation
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety
- Social Sciences › Transportation › Legal and Regulatory Analysis
- Keywords
- autonomous vehicles, traffic law, manufacturer liability, insurance, California, United Kingdom, Netherlands
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