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What is embodiment? A psychometric approach
Open accessAbstract
What is it like to have a body? The present study takes a psychometric approach to this question. We collected structured introspective reports of the rubber hand illusion, to systematically investigate the structure of bodily self-consciousness. Participants observed a rubber hand that was stroked either synchronously or asynchronously with their own hand and then made proprioceptive judgments of the location of their own hand and used Likert scales to rate their agreement or disagreement with 27 statements relating to their subjective experience of the illusion. Principal components analysis of this data revealed four major components of the experience across conditions, which we interpret as: embodiment of rubber hand, loss of own hand, movement, and affect. In the asynchronous condition, an additional fifth component, deafference, was found. Secondary analysis of the embodiment of runner hand component revealed three subcomponents in both conditions: ownership, location, and agency. The ownership and location components were independent significant predictors of proprioceptive biases induced by the illusion. These results suggest that psychometric tools may provide a rich method for studying the structure of conscious experience, and point the way towards an empirically rigorous phenomenology.
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TL;DR
This study applies psychometric methods (principal components analysis) to structured introspective reports of the rubber hand illusion to decompose the experience of embodiment. It identifies four components present in both synchronous and asynchronous conditions, with an additional deafference component in the asynchronous condition, and shows that ownership and location subcomponents independently predict proprioceptive drift.
Key findings
In the synchronous condition, PCA extracted four components accounting for 55.3% of variance: embodiment of rubber hand (26.3% of variance), loss of own hand, movement, and affect. In the asynchronous condition, five components emerged accounting for 59.4% of variance, with the same four plus a new deafference component (embodiment accounted for 24.6%). Secondary PCA on the ten embodiment items revealed three subcomponents in both conditions — ownership, location, and agency — accounting for 79.0% (synchronous) and 76.2% (asynchronous) of variance, with ownership comprising 35.4% and 34.3% respectively. Proprioceptive displacement toward the rubber hand was significant after synchronous stroking (1.34 cm, t(119) = 4.56, p < .0001) but not asynchronous (0.30 cm, n.s.), and was predicted by the embodiment component (β = 0.609, p < .001), specifically by the location (β = .485, p < .005) and ownership (β = .425, p < .01) subcomponents but not agency (β = .110, n.s.).
Methods
131 current and prospective UCL students (75 female; all but six right-handed) participated. Participants viewed a rubber hand stroked either synchronously or asynchronously (180° out of phase, ~1 Hz) with their own hand for 60 seconds, made pre- and post-test proprioceptive location judgments, and rated agreement with 27 statements on a 7-point Likert scale. Separate PCAs with varimax rotation were run per condition, followed by secondary PCAs on the embodiment items, ANOVAs on component scores, and multiple linear regression relating component scores to proprioceptive displacement.
Limitations
The paper states that the selection of questionnaire items restricts the potential structure that can emerge, and that additional components of embodiment may not have been covered; it also notes that the structure found may not generalise to other uses of the term "embodiment" (e.g., emphases on affect, sublinguistic thought, or social interaction). Evident from the text: proprioceptive judgments from 11 participants were missing or unusable, and the questionnaire items were designed based on qualitative research with only five participants.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A similar analysis of the asynchronous condition led to the extraction of five components, together accounting for 59.4% of the variance in the data.”
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In the paper
“In the synchronous condition, analysis of the scree plot and eigenvalues led to the extraction of four components which together accounted for 55.3% of variance in the data (see Table 1).”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Structure Underlying Subjective Reports
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In the paper
“Secondary analysis of the embodiment of rubber hand component revealed three subcomponents in both conditions: ownership, location, and agency.”
- Also stated in: § *** INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE *** · plain
“For both synchronous and asynchronous conditions three subcomponents of embodiment of rubber hand were identified, together account for 79.0% and 76.2% of the variance in the two conditions, respectively.We termed these the senses of ownership, location, and agency (see Table 2).”
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- Also stated in: § *** INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE *** · plain
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In the paper
“In the asynchronous condition, an additional fifth component, deafference, was found.”
- Also stated in: § Structure Underlying Subjective Reports · plain
“However, the major difference was that an entirely new component appeared, which we termed deafference.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Furthermore, an additional component, deafference, emerged only in the asynchronous condition.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Abstract
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- Also stated in: § Structure Underlying Subjective Reports · plain
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In the paper
“The ownership and location components were independent significant predictors of proprioceptive biases induced by the illusion.”
- Also stated in: § Relations between Objective and Subjective Measures · plain
“More interestingly, the ownership subcomponent also independently predicted proprioceptive drift, β = .425,t(116) = 2.85, p < .01,whereas the agency subcomponent did not, β = .110,t(116) = .75,p > .20.”
- Also stated in: § Relations between Objective and Subjective Measures · plain
“Unsurprisingly, the location subcomponent was a significant predictor of prioprioceptive displacement, β = .485,t(116) = 3.02, p < .005.”
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- Also stated in: § Relations between Objective and Subjective Measures · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We therefore conducted additional PCAs on only those items loading strongly (> 0.50; cf.Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006;Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994) on the embodiment of rubber hand component, both in the synchronous and asynchronous conditions.Ten such items were identified (1-10).”
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In the paper
“Principal components analysis of this data revealed four major components of the experience across conditions, which we interpret as: embodiment of rubber hand, loss of own hand, movement, and affect.”
- Also stated in: § Structure Underlying Subjective Reports · plain
“In the synchronous condition, analysis of the scree plot and eigenvalues led to the extraction of four components which together accounted for 55.3% of variance in the data (see Table 1).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Specifically, we identified four components that emerged in both conditions: embodiment of rubber hand (which itself was composed of subcomponents relating to ownership, location, and agency), loss of own hand, movement, and affect.”
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- Also stated in: § Structure Underlying Subjective Reports · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The second component we termed loss of own hand.Items loading on this component related to the feelings of: being unable to move one's hand, one's hand disappearing, and one's hand being out of one's control.”
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In the paper
“Embodiment of rubber hand significantly predicted the proprioceptive displacement, β = 0.609, t(115) = 3.40, p < .001,and movement had a marginal effect, β = 0.290, t(115) = 1.68, p = .096,but the loss of own hand and affect components did not significantly predict proprioceptive displacement, β = -.128,.087,t(115) = -.76,.32,respectively.”
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In the paper
“Embodiment of rubber hand significantly predicted the proprioceptive displacement, β = 0.609, t(115) = 3.40, p < .001,and movement had a marginal effect, β = 0.290, t(115) = 1.68, p = .096,but the loss of own hand and affect components did not significantly predict proprioceptive displacement, β = -.128,.087,t(115) = -.76,.32,respectively.”
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“This related to the sensation of pins-and-needles and numbness in one's hand, and the experience of the hand being less vivid than normal.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Structure Underlying Subjective Reports
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“The same four components appeared in this data, and again the embodiment component accounted for the bulk of the variance (24.6%).”
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“The third component we termed movement; it was comprised of two items relating to perceived motion of one's own hand, and to movement of the rubber hand.”
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“The first component, which accounted for substantially more variance than any other (26.3%),we termed embodiment of rubber hand.It comprised items relating to the feelings that: the rubber hand belonged to the participant, the participant had control over the rubber hand, the rubber hand and real hand were in the same location, and the rubber hand had taken on features of the actual hand (items 1-”
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In the paper
“Ownership comprised a large portion of the variance (35.4% and 34.3% in the synchronous and asynchronous conditions, respectively), and was composed of items related to the feeling that the rubber hand was part of one's body, the feeling of looking directly at one's hand, and the rubber hand taking on the characteristics of one's own hand.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > *** INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE ***
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“Inspection of the component scores showed that these were significantly higher following synchronous than asynchronous stroking for the embodiment of rubber hand, loss of own hand, and affect components.”
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- Rests on an assumption: The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.
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In the paper
“There was also a significant main effect of condition, F(1, 130) = 110.69,p < .0001,and a significant interaction of the two factors, F(2, 260) = 3.60, p < .05.”
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- Rests on an assumption: The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.
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“On average, participants had the sense that the rubber hand was part of their body in the synchronousbut not the asynchronouscondition.”
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“Agency scores were negative in both conditions, which was predicted since neither the participant's hand nor the rubber hand moved at any time.”
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In the paper
“There was a significant main effect of sex, F(1, 127) = 4.06, p < .05,with females showing significantly more agreement with questionnaire items generally (-.055), than males (-.324), consistent with findings that females are, on average, slightly more suggestible than males (e.g., Page & Green, 2007).”
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“Location related to the feeling that the rubber hand and one's own hand were in the same place, and also to sensations of causation between the seen and felt touches.”
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In the paper
“In contrast, component scores for embodiment of rubber hand were significantly positive following synchronous stroking, but significantly negative following asynchronous stroking.”
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- Rests on an assumption: The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Component scores for ownership and location were positive following synchronous stroking, but negative following asynchronous stroking.”
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Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Agency related to the feelings of being able to move the rubber hand, and control over it.”
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In the paper
“Indeed, ownership and location were merged in our primary PCA, and separated only at a secondary stage, suggesting that these components are highly correlated.”
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In the paper
“Our study demonstrates for the first time that experience of one's own body is not a single dimension, but a composite of several different subjective components, organised with a characteristic structure.”
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- Rests on an assumption: The rubber hand illusion is an experimental model of embodiment.
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In the paper
“Nevertheless, ownership and location along with the sense of agency grouped together in the omnibus PCA, suggesting that these three components of embodiment, while dissociable in a focused analysis, form a coherent cluster of experience.”
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“This richer description confirmed significant embodiment of the rubber hand following synchronousbut not asynchronousstroking.”
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- Rests on an assumption: The rubber hand illusion is an experimental model of embodiment.
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In the paper
“These results suggest that psychometric tools may provide a rich method for studying the structure of conscious experience, and point the way towards an empirically rigorous phenomenology.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“These results suggest that psychometric methods can be useful tools in elucidating structure underlying complex conscious experience.”
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- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
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“The emergence of an additional component in the asynchronous condition only suggests that the structure underlying conscious experience in the two conditions, while similar, is not identical.”
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In the paper
“Proprioceptive judgments from 11 participants were missing or unusable due to experimenter error or failure of participants to follow instructions.”
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In the paper
“We termed these the senses of ownership, location, and agency (see Table 2).”
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In the paper
“This effect of sex did not interact, however, with component or synchrony, suggesting that it is not related to the rubber hand illusion, or to embodiment.”
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In the paper
“Thus, while these three components of experience bundled together in the primary analysis, suggesting that they are tightly interrelated in experience, more focused analysis was able to separate them, suggesting that they are dissociable components of experience.”
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Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“In the case of the affect and movement components, synchronous stroking simply exaggerated the effects of asynchronous stroking, whether they were positive or negative respectively.That is, synchrony sharpened these aspects of experience, but did not qualitatively alter them.”
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Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were no other main effects or interactions involving sex or rubber hand laterality, suggesting that these factors do not strongly influence the rubber hand illusion.”
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Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The presence of ownership following synchronous stimulation does not necessarily cause a corresponding positive sense of agency, suggesting that these are dissociable aspects of experience (cf.Sato & Yasuda, 2005;Synofzik, Vosgerau, & Newen, in press;Tsakiris et al., 2006).”
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In the paper
“In summary, two specific aspects of embodiment are manipulated in the rubber hand illusion.These are the sense of ownership of the rubber hand and perceived location of the hand.”
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Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Proprioceptive displacement therefore appears to be a genuine by-product of embodiment, but also related specifically to body ownership, but not agency.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Relations between Objective and Subjective Measures
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants were randomly assigned to either the right-(N = 67) or left-hand (N = 64) apparatus.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Apparatus and Materials
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 67Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The order of the synchronous and asynchronous conditions was alternated across participants.Sixty-six participants completed the synchronous condition first; sixty-five completed the asynchronous condition first.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Procedure
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We designed 27 items based on qualitiative research with five participants, who were asked to freely report their experiences during the illusion.Analysis of these transcripts motivated a selection of questionnaire items.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Procedure
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By combining an experimental manipulation of the experience of one's own body, and a structured psychometric approach to measuring that experience, we were able to characterize what sort of experience embodiment is, and decompose it into sub-aspects.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first two items presented were always items (20 and 21) relating to the experience being interesting and enjoyable; the order of subsequent items was randomized separately for each participant in each condition.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Procedure
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pattern represents the characteristic structure of the rubber hand illusion, one of the few experimental models of embodiment.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A random ruler offset that varied from trial to trial was used to discourage participants from re-using remembered verbal labels from prior trials.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Procedure
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Our results, furthermore, support the claim that affect associated with somatic sensations is separable from other forms of afferent input (cf.Rolls et al., 2003), as the pleasantness of touch loaded on the affect component, whereas the sense of causation associated with touch loaded on the location component”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rolls et al., 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We validated the use of structured introspective reports as a rigorous tool for the study of bodily self-consciousness in two ways: first, by showing that systematic structure emerges in the pattern of responses across participants, and that such structure is similar across experimental conditions, and second, by showing that individual differences between participants were nevertheless related to”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That comparable structure emerged in both the synchronous and asynchronous conditions speaks to the reliability of our method; that components of experiences are selectively related to proprioceptive biases attests to its validity.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If a potential component of the experience of embodiment was not reflected by any of the items we used, it could not have emerged in our analysis.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that there are at least two types of cause of the rubber hand illusion: purely visual information from the perception of the hand in plausible configuration, and multisensory synchrony.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Sensory Conflict and Deafference
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, some aspects of embodiment clearly reflect bottom-up sensory factors (as captured by our location component), while others reflect top-down influences of an explicit model of the body as an object (such as our loss of own hand component).”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Sensory Conflict and Deafference
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The rubber hand illusion is an experimental model of embodiment.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That comparable structure emerged in both the synchronous and asynchronous conditions speaks to the reliability of our method; that components of experiences are selectively related to proprioceptive biases attests to its validity.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most psychological models of conscious experience focus on simple qualia.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To conclude, our results suggest that embodiment, at least in the model instance of the rubber hand illusion studied here, is a genuine but complex experience with a common structure, and identifiable subcomponents.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The rubber hand illusion is an experimental model of embodiment.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The selection of questionnaire items always restricts the potential structure that can emerge from psychometric studies.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To our knowledge, however, this study represents the first systematic application of psychometric methods to investigate complex conscious experience elicited under controlled, experimental conditions, and to identify subcomponents of that experience by systematic questioning.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The psychometric structure found here may or may not generalise to such other instances of embodiment.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there are no doubt additional components of embodiment which were not covered by our questionnaire.”
§ BIROn -Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling open access to Birkbeck's published research output What is embodiment? a psychometric approach > Psychometrics as a Tool for Studying Complex Phenomenology
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.
“The same visual and tactile stimulation delivered asynchronously has a quite different phenomenology.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most studies simply report the occurrence of the illusion, or a behavioural or neural proxy of it such as a change in the perceived position of the participant's own hand, without systematic description or quantitative measurement of the changed sense of embodiment.
“However, most studies simply report the occurrence of the illusion, or a behavioural or neural proxy of it such as a change in the perceived position of the participant's own hand, without systematic description or quantitative measurement of the changed sense of embodiment.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recognition of the importance of embodiment has not been matched by theoretical clarity about what embodiment is or involves.
“However, recognition of the importance of embodiment has not been matched by theoretical clarity about what embodiment is or involves.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The phenomenological tradition has not offered the operational working definitions and measures needed for rigorous empirical research.
“However, it has not offered the operational working definitions and measures needed for rigorous empirical research.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The present findings represent the first systematic attempt to measure embodiment.
“To our knowledge, the present findings represent the first systematic attempt to measure embodiment.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The rubber hand illusion is an experimental model of embodiment.
“While the rubber hand illusion is well accepted as an experimental model of embodiment, there has been less consensus on how to measure the illusion.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The rubber hand illusion can be elicited under systematically controlled experimental conditions.
“Second, we have focussed on the rubber hand illusion as an initial model for embodiment, because it is subjectively compelling for many people, and can elicited under systematically controlled experimental conditions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The rubber hand illusion is subjectively compelling for many people.
“Second, we have focussed on the rubber hand illusion as an initial model for embodiment, because it is subjectively compelling for many people, and can elicited under systematically controlled experimental conditions.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Longo et al. (Longo et al., 2008) clearly found that ownership and location, although strongly linked, were independent components in their analyses, suggesting that they independently contribute to the RHI.”
From Bodily ownership and self-location: Components of bodily self-consciousness (2013) · cites this paper as Longo et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“Previous studies on the RHI have reported changes in the perceived similarity between felt and seen bodies whereby the rubber hand is perceived to become more similar to one’s own hand [24], [49].”
From The other in me: interpersonal multisensory stimulation changes the mental representation of the self (2012) · cites this paper as [49]
In the citing paper
“This change was similar but subjectively not as strong as those changes observed in other body-illusions that use multisensory stimulation to manipulate body-awareness [24], [49].”
From The other in me: interpersonal multisensory stimulation changes the mental representation of the self (2012) · cites this paper as [49]
In the citing paper
“although it seems that other bodily illusions (e.g., RHI) produce stronger phenomenological effects, as reported by participants.”
From The other in me: interpersonal multisensory stimulation changes the mental representation of the self (2012) · cites this paper as [49]
In the citing paper
“The pattern of results is also consistent with that reported for other bodily illusions [49]”
From The other in me: interpersonal multisensory stimulation changes the mental representation of the self (2012) · cites this paper as [49]
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(3, 390) = 107.41reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3, 390) = 107.41,p < .0001”
- ConsistentF(1, 130) = 29.05reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 130) = 29.05,p < .0001”
- ConsistentF(3, 390) = 69.24reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3, 390) = 69.24,p < .0001”
- ConsistentF(2, 260) = 11.26reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2, 260) = 11.26,p < .0001”
- ConsistentF(1, 130) = 110.69reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 130) = 110.69,p < .0001”
- ConsistentF(2, 260) = 3.6reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .029
“F(2, 260) = 3.60, p < .05”
- ConsistentF(1, 127) = 4.06reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .046
“F(1, 127) = 4.06, p < .05”
- Consistentt(119) = 2.43reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .017
“t(119) = 2.43, p < .05”
- Consistentt(119) = 4.56reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(119) = 4.56, p < .0001”
- Consistentt(119) = 1.2reported n.s. · recomputed p = .233
“t(119) = 1.20, n.s.”
- Consistentt(119) = 3.22reported p < .005 · recomputed p = .002
“t(119) = 3.22, p < .005”
- Consistentt(115) = 3.4reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(115) = 3.40, p < .001”
- Consistentt(115) = 1.68reported p = .096 · recomputed p = .096
“t(115) = 1.68, p = .096”
- Consistentt(118) = -0.53reported p > .2 · recomputed p = .597
“t(118) = -.53,p > .20”
- Consistentt(116) = 3.02reported p < .005 · recomputed p = .003
“t(116) = 3.02, p < .005”
- Consistentt(116) = 2.85reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .005
“t(116) = 2.85, p < .01”
- Consistentt(116) = 0.75reported p > .2 · recomputed p = .455
“t(116) = .75,p > .20”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
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Exploratory Study of AR Hand Redirection using Augmented Virtual Hand
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Projecting the new body: How body image evolves during learning to walk with a wearable robot
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Investigating a minimal condition to induce illusory body ownership using virtual reality
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Editorial: Virtual and robotic embodiment
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Peripersonal Space : hand-centred coding in perceptual and learning processes
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"Wings I Can Feel": Haptic Design Principles for Embodied VR Flying
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Body-technology interfaces: digital corporeality and emerging psychopathology
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Factors Influencing Immersion in Desktop-Based Human–Robot Collaboration Simulations
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Mokienko, O. A., Lukyanov, E., Kim, L., Isaev, M. R., Gabuzov, G. G., Bobrov, D. A., Lyukmanov, R. K., Suponeva, N. A., Ustinova, K. I., & Дмитриевич, Б. П. (2026) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s26175617
Self and ego: a network view based on ecology and extended cognition
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Metadata
- Authors
- Longo, M. R., Schüür, F., Kammers, M. P. M., Tsakiris, M., & Haggard, P.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- Utrecht University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Longo, Matthew R.
- Venue
- Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-06
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 978-998
- ISSN
- 0010-0277 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2017142040
- Semantic Scholar
- 76b6e7c63ec2052504d447ca18f61930b57a773d
- Cited by
- 956
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 71 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 60.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cognition (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BIROn (Birkbeck, University of London) (acceptedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Royal Holloway Digital Repository (Royal Holloway University of London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Fundação Bial
- Directorate for Biological Sciences
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/D009529/1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Free Will and Agency
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Keywords
- embodiment, rubber hand illusion, bodily self-consciousness, proprioception, body ownership, body location, bodily agency, introspective reports, subjective experience, phenomenology, psychometric structure
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Perception, Proprioception, Psychometrics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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