The time course of anticipatory constraint integration

“(2003) suggest one more alternative: simple recurrent networks (SRNs; Elman, 1990).”

“One possible alternative to Kuperberg’s dual stream framework comes from ‘‘satisficing’’ (good enough, nonmaximizing; Simon, 1956) parsing theories; the ‘‘good enough representations’’ of Ferreira and colleagues (e.”

“However , a model like TRACE ( McClelland & Elman , 1986 ) predicts such effects without explicit tracking of word onsets or offsets , or any explicit representation of a discrete set of possible completions .”

“…information impacts a listener's interpretation is a point of serious contention among theories of sentence processing (e.g., Frazier & Fodor, 1978; MacDonald, Pearlmutter, & Seidenberg, 1994), and has been the focus of considerable research in psycholinguistics (e.g., Duffy, Morris, & Rayner,…”

“But if this were so, why should it be a general property of self-organizing systems that they activate or prime representation or structure that is incompatible with predictions afforded by, for example, a word onset (in the case of rhyme activation), a role clearly having been filled (as in priming in the current stu…”

“, Shillcock & Bard , 1993 ; Swinney , 1979 ) , we increased both in Experiment 2 .”

“These results from the ERP literature add further credence to the possibility that in situations like those used by Altmann and Kamide (1999), ''anticipation'' of cake given The boy will eat. . . could be driven at least in part by local priming of thematic (or event or situation) knowledge at the…”

“This would be analogous to fixations to rhymes in spoken word recognition studies (e.g., looking at speaker given the unambiguous input beaker; Allopenna et al., 1998).”

“…of when contextual information impacts a listener's interpretation is a point of serious contention among theories of sentence processing (e.g., Frazier & Fodor, 1978; MacDonald, Pearlmutter, & Seidenberg, 1994), and has been the focus of considerable research in psycholinguistics (e.g.,…”

“…(an ERP component that is sensitive to how surprising a word is) upon encountering a determiner that does not fit with an expected upcoming noun (DeLong et al., 2005; see also Wicha, Moreno, & Kutas, 2004, and for related results in Dutch, see Van Berkum, Brown, Zwitserlood, Kooijman, &…”

“( 1997 ) also suggest that the distributed memory model of McClelland and Rumelhart ( 1985 ) might provide a good framework for priming based on thematic fit .”

“…Fodor, 1978; MacDonald, Pearlmutter, & Seidenberg, 1994), and has been the focus of considerable research in psycholinguistics (e.g., Duffy, Morris, & Rayner, 1988; Ferreira & Clifton, 1986; Swinney, 1979; Tanenhaus, Leiman, & Seidenberg, 1979; Tanenhaus, Spivey-Knowlton, Eberhard, & Sedivy, 1995).”

“Such views would not predict activation of representations that are compatible with already-filled roles.”

“One possibly fruitful question for future research is whether the SOPARSE architecture might provide a unifying framework encompassing both hypothesized streams (Kuperberg, 2007).”

“While Kamide, Altmann, et al. (2003) discuss the possibility that anticipatory fixations could result from a system that does not actively predict upcoming referents, they argue that their results are most consistent with ''an incremental processor that establishes the fullest possible…”

“Listeners' eye movements are monitored as they view (and often interact with) a visual scene and listen to speech (for a related precursor, see Cooper, 1974).”

“Spivey ( 2007 ) visualizes the state of a recurrent network over time as points in a many dimen - sional space ( e . g .”

“' ' acknowl - edge ' ' senses of ' ' admit ' ' ) indicated by a sentence context in turn affects parsing preferences ( Hare , McRae , & Elman , 2003 , 2004 ) , and verb aspect ( ' ' was skating ' ' vs .”

“The impact of lexical priming is observable even as a word is unfolding ( Huettig & Altmann , 2005 ; Yee & Sedivy , 2006 ) .”

“…, thematic and other aspects of linguistic knowledge would constitute features at varying time scales , that would be simultaneously embedded statisti - cally within the patterns of connectivity within the net - work without explicit levels of representation ( see also Elman , 2004 , 2009 ) .”

“…to afford robust prediction of upcoming syntactic constituents and even specific words (for related results, see Pearlmutter & MacDonald, 1995), and have motivated theories that posit active forecasting mechanisms in sentence processing (e.g., Altmann & Kamide, 2007; Knoeferle & Crocker, 2007).”

“While their studies have revealed that accessing a word triggers activation of rich thematic and event knowledge (Ferretti et al., 2001; McRae et al., 2005), they have also shown that there is a subtle and complex interplay between such priming, and mechanisms of ongoing sentence processing that they explain via const…”

“For example, Kim and Osterhout (2005) pitted syntactic cues against semantic cues to thematic role in sentences like The meal was devouring. . .: while syntactic features of meal suggest that the verb is semantically anomalous (e.g., cooking would be more appropriate), semantic cues suggest the verb should be in past…”

“, Altmann & Mirkovic , 2009 ) .”

“Kamide, Scheepers, and Altmann (2003) used a visual world design which included such items: their displays depicted sets like a hare, fox, cabbage, and tree, and their sentences described one of the items (e.g., hare) in differing thematic roles in an active (e.g., The hare will eat the cabbage)…”

“The impact of lexical priming is observable even as a word is unfolding ( Huettig & Altmann , 2005 ; Yee & Sedivy , 2006 ) .”

“John & McClelland , 1990 ) , since both have been construed as models of role filling ( though neither framework is lim - ited to such scope ) , and both have logically assumed for - ward directionality .”

“…system may require two loosely interacting streams ( lexical - semantic and morphosyntactic – thematic ) as suggested by Kuperberg ( 2007 ; see also Kim & Osterhout , 2005 ) , or it may be possible for both local priming and forward - directed prediction to emerge within a single self -…”

“Some of our items were based on materials from McRae et al. (1997, 1998) and Binder, Duffy, and Rayner (2001). Each verb was grouped with seven animate nouns: some nouns were good agent or patient candidates, some were poor candidates, and some were included to fall in the middle of the typicality scale.”

“, put, as in Chambers et al., 2004, or return, as in Chambers & San Juan, 2008). Let us emphasize again that we are not excluding a role for prediction based upon context-specific evaluation of verb and object properties. As Chambers et al. put it, highly specific and possibly never experienced non-linguistic scene an…”

“Our findings are complementary to those of Knoeferle and Crocker ( 2006 , 2007 ) .”

“While their studies have revealed that accessing a word triggers activation of rich thematic and event knowledge (Ferretti et al., 2001; McRae et al., 2005), they have also shown that there is a subtle and complex interplay between such priming, and mechanisms of ongoing sentence processing that they explain via const…”

“In SOPARSE , local information can compete quite powerfully with global ( longer time scale ) information related via a set of linked treelets activated by the input thus far .”

“…, with the words that we have heard , whether based on the - matic role compatibility ( Altmann & Kamide , 1999 ) , visual features of objects ( Dahan & Tanenhaus , 2005 ) , depicted or implied event information ( Altmann & Kamide , 2007 ; Knoeferle & Crocker , 2006 , 2007 ) , category (…”

“In general , for effects to be detect - able immediately , constraints must be overwhelmingly strong , whether they are based on lexical priming , or linguis - tic ( Dahan & Tanenhaus , 2004 ) , scene ( Altmann & Kamide , 1999 ) , or pragmatic ( Magnuson et al .”

“, Cree & McRae , 2003 ; Cree , McRae , & McNorgan , 1999 ; O ' Connor , McRae , & Cree , 2006 ) , or a re - lated attractor framework tailored to sequential processing of spoken input ( Plaut & Kello , 1999 ) .”

“In - stead , consistent with Altmann and Kamide ( 2007 , 2009 ) , lexical , syntactic , thematic and other aspects of linguistic knowledge would constitute features at varying time scales , that would be simultaneously embedded statisti - cally within the patterns of connectivity within the net -…”

“At first glance, our results may appear consistent with the classical view of context integration proposed by Swinney (1979) and Tanenhaus et al.”

“, 2005; Ferretti et al., 2001; Knoeferle & Crocker, 2006, 2007) provide strong evidence for anticipation based on forecasting. However, such results do not rule out the possibility of important contributions of local thematic priming in addition (cf. Kuperberg, 2007). The complexity required of a forecasting mechanism…”

“At the other end of the continuum, we have fixations to items in a display that are semantically related to a named target, but that have no other connection to the unfolding language or the task at hand (Dahan & Tanenhaus, 2005; Huettig & Altmann, 2005; Myung et al., 2006; Yee & Sedivy, 2006).”

“However , the original interpretation of these results no longer holds ; Shillcock and Bard ( 1993 ) demonstrated that immediate context - selective priming is obtained when constraints are sub - stantially stronger than those used in the 1979 studies ( see also Magnuson et al .”

“In SOPARSE , local information can compete quite powerfully with global ( longer time scale ) information related via a set of linked treelets activated by the input thus far .”

“…to afford robust prediction of upcoming syntactic constituents and even specific words (for related results, see Pearlmutter & MacDonald, 1995), and have motivated theories that posit active forecasting mechanisms in sentence processing (e.g., Altmann & Kamide, 2007; Knoeferle & Crocker, 2007).”

“( 1997 , 1998 ) and Binder , Duffy , and Rayner ( 2001 ) .”

“Here , we appeal to the distinction between exploitation ( maximization ) vs . exploration ( Movellan & McClelland , 2001 ) .”

“Chambers and San Juan (2008) have also demonstrated that anticipatory eye movements are driven by dynamic, ''situation-specific'' knowledge concerning the relationship between scene and sentence.”

“In general, for effects to be detectable immediately, constraints must be overwhelmingly strong, whether they are based on lexical priming, or linguistic (Dahan & Tanenhaus, 2004), scene (Altmann & Kamide, 1999), or pragmatic (Magnuson et al., 2008) context.”

“To explore how predictions are affected by factors that can reduce available cognitive resources, we used the visual world eye-tracking paradigm to compare predictions between people who performed a concurrent working memory task and those who did not.”

“Even more closely related to the procedure used in the present study, Kukona et al. (2011) nicely demonstrated that during sentence comprehension (e.g., “Toby arrests the . . . .”), fixations following verb presentation increase overall for semantically related objects (e.g., crook, policeman)…”

“The reports that yielded evidence for pre-activation based on a function word included longer intervals for measurement between the function word and the onset of the target noun than those that yielded negative results (see also Kukona et al., 2011).”

“The present study extends previous eye-tracking findings by Kukona et al. (2011), who found that listeners’ anticipatory eye-movements were sensitive to filled vs.”

“Functional Versus General Word Associations Our findings of a robust role of functional associations for language-mediated anticipatory eye gaze are compatible with the findings of Kukona et al. (2011).”

“Converging evidence suggests that the initial moments of competition between lexical alternatives are constrained by multiple sources of information from different dimensions of the linguistic input (e.g., Dahan & Tanenhaus 2004; Kukona et al. 2011), including information external to the linguistic system, such as vis…”

“The results are also compatible with more recent situated understanding constraint-satisfaction accounts, which postulate locality, and temporal dependence of constraint activation (e.g., Knoeferle & Crocker, 2006; Kukona et al., 2011).”

“The whole event evoked when processing a sentence within a given context restricts the set of potential word referents (Kako and Trueswell, 2000; Kamide et al., 2003; Chambers and Juan, 2008; Bicknell et al., 2010; Kukona et al., 2011).”

“One interpretation of these additional Action-Related fixations by unimpaired individuals is that they are continuing to activate items that may be locally consistent but globally implausible with the sentence-level message (Borovsky et al., 2012; Kukona et al., 2011; Tabor, Galantucci, & Richardson, 2004).”

“2 The current analyses differed from Kukona et al. (2014) in two critical respects.”

“Because structural computations will mostly be completed after 670 semantics, though, there will be situations in which predictions will only be compatible with 671 the unfolding semantic interpretation but not with the structure of the sentence (such as in 672 Kukona et al., 2011, Experiment 1).”

“This is helped by the existence of related findings from other experimental measures (eye-tracking: Kukona et al., 2011; speeded cloze: Chow et al., 2015).”

“As mentioned in the introduction, when anticipating sentence-final syntactic objects, listeners could specifically predict the patient referent based on its role in the event described by the verb (cf. Kukona et al., 2012).”

“, scene understanding has to happen before constraints supplied by visual attention are applied to sentence production (Altmann and Kamide 1999; Knoeferle and Crocker 2007; Kukona et al. 2011).”

“, 2011), anticipatory looking behavior in the Visual World Paradigm (Borovsky et al., 2012; Kamide et al., 2003; Kukona et al., 2011) and eventrelated brain potentials (ERPs; Bicknell et al.”

“This finding of anticipatory eye movements based on contextual information has since been replicated in a number of visual world studies (Kamide et al., 2003; Kukona et al., 2011; see Huettig et al., 2011, for a review).”

“Other studies, which analyzed their data with GCA used lower order polynomials, due to less complex data [37, 38, 39].”

“More importantly, there is evidence that prediction can be achieved without the contribution of forward models (i.e., comprehenders might predict based on the activation of event schemes; Amsel et al., 2015; Kukona et al., 2011; Metusalem et al., 2012).”

“Semantic memory for events is automatically activated when neurotypical adults hear or read isolated words (Matsuki et al., 2011; Kukona et al., 2011); Verbs prime (activate) typical agents, themes, and instruments associated with the events those verbs denote, and vice-versa (Hare, Jones, Thomson, Kelly & McRae, 2009…”

“One such case concerns the interaction between visual and sentence-level information (Knoeferle & Crocker, 2006, 2007; Kukona et al., 2011, 2014; Rommers et al., 2013, 2015).”

“Looks to such locally coherent items are seen in native language processing regardless of the fact that they should already have been disqualified as likely targets by the agent (Borovsky et al., 2012; Kukona et al., 2011).”

“This provides additional confidence that older adults’ fixations to the verb-congruent competitor in Experiment 2 reflect their automatic activation of this referent based on the verb’s coarse-grained semantic constraints, as found in previous visual-world studies (Borovsky et al., 2012; Kamide et al., 2003; Kukona et…”

“…emerge from a “dumb” system where the preceding context simply leads to spreading activation of features that then facilitate the processing of any upcoming input that shares those features (Huettig, 2015; Karimi et al., 2019; Kukona et al., 2011; also see Kahneman, 2011; Kuperberg, 2007).”

“…SWR and spoken language comprehension more broadly, including semantics (Altmann & Kamide 1999, Ferretti et al. 2001), local thematic information (Kukona et al. 2011), visual context (Chambers et al. 2004, Eberhard et al. 1995, Sedivy et al. 1999, Tanenhaus et al. 1995), and world knowledge…”

“Our experiment involved more items than previous experiments (e.g., 28 critical sentences vs. 16 in Altmann & Kamide, 1999) and we had at least a similar number of critical trials to previous studies (e.g., Kukona et al., 2011 had 640 trials; Altmann & Kamide, 1999 had 384; we had 672).”

“Following the logic that more structural cues within a sentence can lead to more robust anticipatory eye movements to targets 36,37 , within Croatian we expected increased and earlier fixations on the factual in negative concord, followed by sentential negation.”

“Models by Hale (2001) and Levy (2008b) assume that comprehenders only distribute probabilities over grammatical parses that are compatible with the global syntactic constraints; thus, they do not predict the effects observed here.”

“Using visual world eye-tracking (Huettig et al., 2011, for review), Kukona et al. (2011) provided experimental evidence supporting the notion that associations and combinatorial event information jointly contribute to anticipatory processing during comprehension.”

“Indeed, Kukona et al. (2011), also using a Visual World paradigm, found evidence for this kind of thematic priming, in addition to prediction effects based on structural characteristics.”

“…work on active sentence interpretation indicates that while predicting the patient in a sentence like, “ Toby arrests the . . . , ” adults look at both “ police ” and “ crook, ” indicating that both agent-and patient-associated information is activated in response to verbs (Kukona et al., 2011).”

“…sensitivity of eye-movements to linguistic predictions in visual world studies (e.g., Altmann and Kamide, 1999; Weber et al., 2006; Kamide, 2008; Kukona et al., 2011; Mani and Huettig, 2012), 1Although it does not form part of this paper, we also successfully replicated the original Huettig and…”

“In such a context, the meaning of these contextual words may cue prediction of the target word without involving event simulation (Chow et al., 2016; Kukona, 2020; Kukona et al., 2011).”

“…in the larger context, such looks to the verb-related image have been previously reported in college-aged adults, second language speakers, and children [Kukona et al. 2011; Borovsky et al. 2012; Peters et al. 2018], and been proposed to stem from thematic priming [Ferretti et al. 2001].”

“This is not unexpected, however, as prediction is often accompanied by a certain degree of lexicallydriven activation even when such an effect is in principle incongruent with broader sentence or discourse information [45].”

“…language, we tend to talk about things that are likely to happen, and therefore our knowledge about both word co-occurrences and how the world works converges, allowing us to predict upcoming words (Altmann & Kamide, 1999; Borovsky et al., 2012; Kamide et al., 2003; Kukona et al., 2011, 2016).”

“This 200 ms buffer following the onset of a word is based on the mean time required to plan and launch an eye movement, and the typical lag observed between eye movements and fine-grained phonetic detail in the speech stream (Allopenna et al., 1998; Kukona et al., 2011).”

“, Altmann & Kamide, 1999; Chambers & San Juan, 2008; Kamide, Altmann, & Haywood, 2003; Kamide, Scheepers, & Altmann, 2003; Knoeferle & Crocker, 2006, 2007) reveal that the language processing system rapidly uses the contextual constraints to predict upcoming linguistic input, effects of context-independent information…”

“Anticipatory looks can be supported by semantic priming as well as by prediction, posing challenges in isolating active prediction 33–36 .”

“In addition, complementing findings like Kukona et al. (2011, 2014), these results suggest that comprehenders preactivate lexically associated representations that are otherwise unpredictable in sentences.”

“For [22, 23] the modality was acoustic while our input modality was text and images.”

“Integration courses are conducted within the framework of the state order and are regulated by the current legislation (Kukona et al., 2011; Lee & Lee, 2014).”